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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT  OF 

POLITICAL  SCIENCE   AND   SOCIOLOGY 


SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY 

An  Analytical  Reference  Syllabus 


BY 


GEORGE  ELLIOTT  HOWARD,  Ph.  D. 

Head  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  Sociology 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY 
1910 


H$3 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


Among  teachers  of  experience  the  conviction  is  deepening  thai 
social  psychology  is  by  far  the  most  practical,  the  most  fruitful, 
division  of  sociological  science.  Social  psychology  is  applied 
sociology  at  its  best.  Tn  fact,  the  subject  as  presented  in  this 
outline,  besides  other  matter,  embraces  in  substance  or  in  prin- 
ciple all  that  Professor  Ward  has  discussed  in  his  admirable 
Applied  Sociology.  Furthermore,  the  appearance  within  a 
twelve-month  of  Ross's  Social  Psychology,  Davis's  Psychological 
Interpretations,  McDougalPs  Social  Psychology,  and  Oooley's 
Social  Organisation  has  made  comparatively  easy  the  analysis 
of  the  materials  for  academic  study.  These  works  supplement 
one  another  in  various  ways.  For  instance,  the  books  of  Mc- 
Dougall  and  Ross  have  nothing  in  common  except  the  title, 
since  the  former  drops  the  subject  where  the  latter  takes  it  up; 
while  neither  of  these  writers,  except  in  passing,  touches  the 
historical  foundations  with  which  in  so  helpful  a  way  the  mono- 
graph of  Davis  is  concerned. 

The  Social  Psychology  of  Professor  Ross  possesses  the  well- 
known  characteristics  of  the  author's  fascinating  style  and  orig- 
inality of  illustration.  The  point  of  view  is  essentially  that  of 
Tunic;  for  the  subject-matter  is  restricted  mainly  to  the  general 
field  of  suggestion-imitation,  lint  Ross's  analysis  is  more  com 
plete,  and,  through  his  fertility  in  up-to-date  examples,  he  deals 
far  more  effectively  with  the  actualities  of  modern  social  life. 
Logically,  it  must  be  confessed,  Dr.  Ross  has  not  covered  the 
entire  ground  of  social  psychology.  His  definition  hardly  em- 
braces all  the  psychic  phenomena  of  group-life.  Nevertheless 
his  narrower  conception  of  the  subject  favors  an  economic  di- 
vision of  labor.  A  broader  treatment  might  include  much  that 
necessarily  is  treated  in  "general  sociology,"  which,  of  course, 

(3) 


4  PREFATORY    NOTE. 

is  chiefly  psychological  in  character.  The  more  restricted  treat- 
ment has  at  least  the  offsetting  advantage  of  directing  attention 
to  the  really  practical  part  of  social  psychology. 

Still,  when  all  is  said,  a  well-balanced  course  of  study  must 
somewhat  transcend  the  limits  of  Dr.  Ross's  book.  Accordingly 
the  first  chapter  of  this  syllabus,  comprising  six  sections,  deals 
with  the  "characteristics  of  social  psychology,"  including  ils  his- 
torical development.  Here  Dr.  Davis's  important  work  has  been 
of  distinct  service.  The  second  chapter  and  part  of  the  third, 
constituting  sections  YII  to  XVIII  inclusive,  closely  follow  Dr. 
boss's  analysis,  except  that  here  and  there  supplementary  topics 
have  been  introduced  and  fuller  references  supplied.  Two  rather 
elaborate  outlines,  sections  XIX  and  XX,  complete  the  text;  for 
the  great  problems  with  which  they  deal  are  coming  more  and 
more  to  command  the  earnest  attention  of  thoughtful  men. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  "Select  Bibliography"  may  prove  useful 
in  organizing  more  intensive  studies. 

George  Elliott  Howard. 
Lincoln,  November  16,  1909. 


\  i.Y'i  [CAL  [NDEX. 


PAGES 

(II   .I'TER    I.      CHARACTERISTICS    OF    SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY 7-25 

I.  Kise  of  Psychological  Sociology:    the  Conception  of  Social 

Unity    7-10 

II.  Kise  of  Psychological  Sociology:    the  Conception  of  Social 

Personality   10-12 

III.  The   Problems   of   a   Social    .Mind 12-14 

IV.  Rise    of    Social    Psychology    as    a    Specialized    Division    of 

Psychological    Sociology    14-18 

1.  Various    Special     Contributions 14-17 

2.  Systematic    Works    17-18 

V.  The  Theories  of   Gabriel  Tarde 18-20 

1.  Biography    and    Bibliography 18-19 

2.  Davis's  Analysis  of  the  Elements  of  Tarde's  System...      19 

3.  Suggestions   for   Critical    Study 20 

V I .  The   Province   of    Social   Psychology :>]-::> 

Chapter  II.     suggestibility  and  Imitation 26-46 

VII.  Suggestion   and   its   Variations 26-29 

1 .  What    is    Suggestion?    26-27 

2.  Variation   of   Suggestibility    

VIII.  Mob  Mind :    Definitions  of  Crowd  and  Mob 29-31 

IX.  Mob  Mind   Continued    3]  -34 

1.  Mob   Characteristics    Without    Presence   or   Bodily    Con- 

tagion      31-33 

2.  Forms   of  Assembly   with   Presence   Differentiated    from 

the  Crowd  and  the   Mob ::::-::  1 

X.  Remedies   and   Preventives   of   Mob   Mind .;  l-  ;.". 

XL  Fashion     36-38 

XII.  Conventionality    38-41 

XIII.  Custom  and  Tradition    41-45 

XIV.  Rational    Imitation     4.3-46 

Chapter  III.     Opposition    or   Coin tek-Imitation;     and    Other    As- 
pects of   Social  Mind  and   Ethics 47-62 

XV.   Interference    and    Conflict    47-49 

1.  Silent   Conflict    47 

2.  Vocal   Conflict   or   Discussion 47-49 

X  V ! .  Union   and   Accumulation    4 '.» 

XVII.  Compromise    49-50 

XVIII.  Public   or   Social    Opinion 50-53 

XIX.  The    Psychology    of    Race-Prejudice    and    the    Problem    of 

Potential    Race-Equality    .")3-5^ 

XX.    The    Hole   of   Great   Men 58-62 

1.  The    "Great   Man"    Interpretation    of    History 

2.  Potential    Genius    and    Democracy 59-62 

Select    Bibliography    63-SS 

(5) 


SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF   SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY. 


Section   I.     Rise  of   Psychological   Sociology:    Tin:   Concep- 
tion of  Social  Unity. 

I.  The  Forerunners:    Genesis  of  the  Idea  of  a   Social    Psychic 
Unity. 

1.  Auguste    Comte    (Davis,    Psychological    Interpretations, 

15-21). 

a.  His  psychological   law  of  the  three  states  or  stages   in 

the  history  of  the  human  mind  (Comte,  Philosophic 
positive,  I,  2  ft'. ;  idem,  Martineau's  ed.,  T,  2  ff. ; 
idem,  Positive  Polity,  passim  \ . 

b.  His     conception     of     psychology    ("transcendental    bi- 

ology") in  his  hierarchy  of  the  sciences;  and  of  the 
relation  of  sociology  to  psychology  (Comte,  Positive 
Philosophy,  Martineau's  ed.,  I,  15  ft.,  II,  93  it'.; 
idem,  Positive  Polity,  II,  1851  ff.  Cf.  Davis,  op. 
cit,  17-18). 

c.  He    recognizes    the   affective    faculty,    the    feelings,    as 

"the  prime  motives  of  the  mind"  (Davis.  op.  (it.. 
is  L9;  Comte,  PMlosophie  positive,  -"itli  ed.,  III.  le<;on 
45;  idem,  Positive  Polity,  I.  542-43,  550,  III.  55  ft.. 
57:   .Mart  mean.  op.  (it..   I.  chap.  vi). 

d.  Real   meaning  of  Comte's   idea   of  "The   Great   Being" 

or  social  unity   (Davis,  op    cit.,  20-21). 

2.  Herbert  Spencer. 

a.  The  need  of  a  knowledge  of  psychology  in  social  life 
accented  in  his  Study  of  Sociology,  chap.  xv. 

I).  Emphasis  of  factors  of  mind  and  environment  in  his 
Principles  of  Sociology,  especially  Part  1  (Ward, 
Dynamic  Sociology,  I,  206  ft.:  Davis,  op.  cit..  22-25). 

c.  His  doctrine  of  "correspondence":  he  "correlates  social 
type  with  mental  type,  hut  rarely  psychic  process 
with  social  process"   (Davis,  op.  cit..  24). 

cm 


8  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

3.  George  Henry  Lewes  aiid  the  first  clear  conception  of  a 

"general  mind"  (Problems  of  Life  and  Mind,  3d  series, 
I,  159-70,  1st  series,  I,  101  ff.,  115  ff.,  146  ff.  Cf.  Davis, 
op.  cit.,  25-26). 

4.  E.  De  Roberty:    holds  that  the  most  important  basis  of 

psychology  is  sociological  (La  sociologie,  188,  201  ff. ; 
Davis,  op.  cit.,  26-27). 

5.  Hegel  and  the  doctrine  of  "imminent  ideas"  in  the  evolu- 

tion of  peoples. 

6.  Moritz  Lazarus  and  H.  Steinhal  and  the  first  conception 

of  Folk-Psychology    (for  their  bibiography,  see  Davis, 
op.  cit.,  28  ff.). 
a.  Earliest  clear  conception  of  a  science  of  the  "collective 

mind." 
o.  Steinhal's    analysis    of   psychology    as    a   whole,    1887 
(Davis,  op.  cit.,  28-32). 

1)  General  psychology:    the  science  of  the  mechanism 

of  ideas,  feelings,  and  impulses. 

2)  Folk   psychology:    dealing   with   communal   psychic 

life. 

3)  Individual    psychology:     science    of    the   individual 

mind. 
c.  Their  conception  of  a  "Volk"  and  of  a  "Volksgeist," 
1860;  abstract  not  experimental  method  (Zeitschrift 
fiir  Volker-Psychologie,  III,  385-486). 

II.  The  Modern  Builders  of  Systematic  Psychological  Sociology. 
1.  Lester  Frank  Ward:    his  pioneer  system  of  psychological 
sociology,  1883-1906  (on  Ward,  compare  Dealey,  Sociol- 
ogy, 78-80). 

a.  His  powerful  influence  in  freeing  sociology   from  the 

biological  or  "organicist"  theory. 

b.  Yet  his  sociology  is  sanely  "dualistic,"  recognizing  bi- 

ological and  physical  as  well  as  psychic  phenomena 
(on  "dualism,"  see  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  chaps, 
v,  x;  idem,  Dynamic  Sociology,  I,  chap,  v;  Dealey 
and  Ward,  Text-Book,  chap,  vii;  Small,  General  So- 
ciology, 79-90;  Giddings,  Principles,  363-99;  Ellwood, 
in  A.  J.  8.,  IV,  657-58) . 

c.  Great   importance  of   his  psychology    of    the    "social 

forces"  or  desires;  of  the  feelings  as  the  "dynamic 


CHARACTERISTICS.  J 

agent"  and  of  the  intellect  as  the  "directive  agent" 
iu  social  achievement  (see  the  detailed  analysis  of 
Wind's  psychology  of  the  social  forces  in  Howard, 
General  Sociology,  '.',--:'>'>). 
<l.  His  masterly  application  of  psychic  principles  in  his 
Applied  Sociology  (1906). 

2.  Franklin  11.  Giddings:    psychological  basis  of  his  syst<  m. 

a.  Like  that  of  Ward,  Giddings's  sociology  is  scientifically 

"dnalistic";  but  it  lays  strong  accent  on  psychic 
forces. 

b.  His  basic  analysis  of  the  genetic  social  process   i  Cid 

dings,  Principles,  IT  ff.;  idem,  Elements,  119  U. ; 
idem,  Inductive  Sociology,  91  ff. ;  idem,  Descriptive 
and  Historical  Sociology,  275  ff. ;  idem,  in  .1.  •/.  S., 
X,  1G4-66;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ence, V,  790-91.  Cf.  especially  Davis,  op.  cit.,  10-49; 
and  the  criticism  by  McDougall,  Social  Psycvhology, 
298-300). 

1)  "Like  response  to  the  same  given  stimulus,"  produc- 

ing   "organic    sympathy,"    then    "reflective    sym- 
pathy," resulting  in 

2)  "Consciousness  of  kind'' :    the  "original  and  element- 

ary subjective  fact  in  society";   "the  only  social 
consciousness."     It  produces 

3)  "Concerted  volition." 

c.  Great  value  of  his  exposition  of  "social  process,  law  and 

cause"  (Principles,  3G1-422). 

3.  fimile  Ourkheim  and  the  doctrine  of  "social  constraint" 

(see  his  De  la  division  du  travail  social;  and  his  Les 
regies  ilc  la  methode  sociologique.     Cf.  Davis,  op.  cit., 
49-52;  idem,  Gabriel  Tarde.  98-99). 
a.   Lays    too    .ureal    stress    on    the    "social    mind"    as    the 

dynamic  agent. 
6.  Neglects  the  influence  of  the  "one  on  the  many." 
l.  Albion  \V.  Small:    he  recognizes  that  the  "final   terms  in 
the  social   process  are  the  psychic   facts  which  occur 
in  the  individuals  that  carry  on  the  process"   (see  his 
General  Sociology.  618-25,  especially  624;  and  compare 
Tufts,   "Social   Psychology   in    Small's    General   Sociol- 
ogy," in  Psychological  Bulletin,  II,  393-98). 
5.  To  what  extent   is   a    psychic  social   unity   recognized   by 


10  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

Ratzenhofer  and  the  other  "struggle"  sociologists;  and 
by  Lilienfeld,  Roberty,  and  the  other  "biological"  soci- 
ologists?    (Of.  Davis,  Interpretations,  38-40). 

III.  Descriptive  Social  Psychology:  Various  Interpretations  of 
Folk  Psychology  or  National  Psychic  Unity  (Davis,  Interpre- 
tations, 34-38,  42-45). 

1.  Hugo  Miinsterberg :    his  The  Americans   (1904). 

2.  Emile  Boutmy. 

a.  His  Essai  d'une  psychologic  politique  du  peuple  anglais 

an  XIXe  siecle  (1901). 

b.  His   Elements   d'une   psychologic   politique   du  p&uple 

americain   (1902). 

3.  Alfred  Fouillee. 

a.  His  Psychologic  du  peuple  frangais  (2d  ed.,  1898). 
6.  His  Esquissc  psychologique  des  peuples  europeens   (2d 
ed.,  1903). 

c.  For  his  other  works,  see  Section  III  below. 

4.  Alexis  de  Tocqueville:   his  Democracy  in  America  (1835). 

5.  James  Bryce:    his  American  Commonwealth  (1888). 

6.  Charles  Dickens:    his  American  Notes   (1842). 

7.  For  further  illustration  of  the  rise  of  folk   psychology 

and  the  conception  of  social  unity,  see  below,  Section 
III. 

Section  II.    Rise  of  Psychological  Sociology  :  The  Conception 
op  Social  Personality. 

I.  General  Sociological  Results  of  Child-Study,  Physical  and 
Mental. 

1.  By  Froebel  and  Herbart. 

2.  By  Preyer,  Perez,  Hall,  Barnes,  and  others. 

II.  General  Sociological  Results  of  the  Study  of  Self  by  the 
Genetic  Psychologists. 

1.  J.  M.  Baldwin  and  the  "dialectic  of  personal  growth"; 
great  value  of  this  conception  for  sociology  (Baldwin, 
Social  and,  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Mental  Derelop- 
mcnt,  13  ff.,  passim;  idem,  Mental  Development  in  the 
Child  and  the  Race,  334  ff.  Cf.  Davis.  Interpretations, 
53  ff.). 

a.  The  "projective"  stage. 

6.  The  "subjective"  stage. 


CHARACTERISTIC.  1  1 

c.  The  "ejeotive"  stage:    the  "social  self  is  born." 

d.  The  "dialectic  of  social  growth"    {Social  <m<i   Ethical 

Interpretations,  539  IV.) . 
2.  William  .lames  and  the  conception  of  progressive  mental 
dichotomy. 

a.  Each  of  us  divides  all  experience  into   the  'self"  and 

the  "not-self";  but 

b.  "Each  of  us  dichotomizes  the  universe  in  a  differenl 

way." 
.'!.  Josiah  Boyce  and  the  conception  of  the  social  origin 
of  the  distinction  between  the  "self"  and  the  "not-self* 
(Royce,  The  World  and  the  Individual,  2d  series,  chap. 
iv,  155-204  i  "'physical  and  social  reality"),  chap.  vi. 
245-77  ("the  human  self");  idem.  Qiood  and  Evil,  Pref- 
ace, and  chaps,  vii.  viii). 

4.  Avenarius  and  the  theory  of  mental  "introjection"  (Ave- 
narins.  Per  menschliche  \Vedtbe</riff,  32  ff. ;  Baldwin. 
Mental  Development,  339;  Ulan,  social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations,  15,  note,  581-85. 

III.  General  Results  of  the  Study  of  Personality  by  the  Genetic 
Social   Psychologists. 

1.  E.  A.  Ross  and  the  conception  of  the  "octave  of  stages 

of  collective  individuality"  (Ross,  in  .1.  ./.  8.,  X.  460  ff . ; 
or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  872  ff.). 

2.  Charles    H.    Cooley    and    the   development    of    the    social 

person  (Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order. 
1902;  idem,  "A  study  of  the  early  Cse  of  Self-Words 
by  a  Child,"  in  Psychological  Review,  Nov.,  L908;  idem, 
Social  Organization.  1  !)<>!>.  This  last  work  is  reviewed 
in  The  Nation,  LXXXIX,  165-66.  With  Cooley,  read 
Hobhouse,  Morals  in  Evolution,  I,  364-75,  on  the  genesis 
of  the  inter-relation  of  society  and  the  social  personal 
ity). 

a.  Sociology    is   the   science   of   personal    intercourse. 

1)  Tn  its  primary  aspects:    the  "individual." 

2)  In  its  secondary  aspects:    groups. 

b.  Sociology   must   concern    itself  especially   with   man-to- 

man relations  or  associations  (Oooley,  Unman  Nature 
and  the  Social  Order,  particularly   1-13,  70-101). 


12  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

1)  The  social  person  is  a  "psychic  fact";  a  "group  of 

sentiments  attached  to  some  symbol";  the  "social 
self  is  simply  an  idea,  or  system  of  ideas,  drawn 
from  communicative  life,  that  the  mind  cherishes 
as  its  own";  and  "every  cherished  idea  is  a  self" 
(Cooley,  op.  cit.,  147,  185.  Cf.  Royce,  World  and 
Individual,  II,  272;  Sirnmel,  Soziologie,  767; 
Davis,  Interpretations,  59-60). 

2)  Society  "in  its  immediate  aspect  is  a  relation  among 

personal  ideas" ;  "social  consciousness,  or  aware- 
ness of  society,  is  inseparable  from  self-conscious- 
ness"  (Cooley,  Social  Organization,  5). 

c.  "Suggestion  and  choice." 

d.  "Sociability  and  personal  ideas." 

e.  "Sympathy  or  communion  as  an  aspect  of  society." 

/.  "Primary  groups"  and  "primary  ideals"  (Cooley,  Social 

Organization,  23-57). 
g.  "Communication"  (Cooley,  op.  cit.,  61-103). 
h.  "The  theory  of  public  opinion"  (Cooley,  op.  cit.,  121  ff.). 

3.  William  McDougalPs  theory  of  the  evolution  of  personal- 

ity, the  self- regarding  sentiment,  and  social  idealism 
(Social  Psychology,  174  ff.,  209  ff.). 

4.  Benjamin  Kidd   (Individualism  and,  After,  1908). 

5.  E.  F.  B.  Fell's  theory  of  "personalism"  (The  Foundations 

of  Liberty,  1908).  Insists  that  man  is  not  chiefly 
social;  but  his  social  nature  and  relations  are  subordi- 
nate to  his  extra-social  or  divine  relations. 

6.  J.  A.  Leighton   ("The  Psychological  Self  and  the  Actual 

Personality,"  in  Philosophical  Review,  XIV,  669-83; 
"Ethics,  sociology,  and  personality,"  in  ibid.,  XV,  494- 
510). 

7.  Michael  M.  Davis's  resulting  analysis  of  the  development 

of  social  units  (Psychological  Interpretations  of  Soci- 
ety, 61-64). 

Section  III.  The  Problems  of  a  Social  Mind  ("Social  Con- 
sciousness," "Public  Opinion,"  "General  Will,"  "Social  Will," 
"General  Mind"). 

I.  Two  Extreme  Views  (Davis,  Psychological  Interpretations  of 
Society,  65-66). 


CHAEAd  ERISTICS.  L3 

1.  That  of  fimile   Durkheim:    in   effect    he   holds   that    the 

social-psychic  phenomena  which  are  called  "social 
mind"  "have  an  existence  in  themselves  independently 
of  their  individual  manifestations." 

2.  That  of  llernian   Paul:    he  denies  existence  of  "the  mind 

of  a  community"  (Principles  of  the  History  of  Law 
guage,  Eng.  ed.,  1888,  p.  xxxviiii. 

II.  An  Enlightening  Debate. 

1.  Charles  A.  Ellwood  holds  that  society  is  a  psychic  unity. 
a.  Thus  there  is  a  social  mind — social  consciousness. 

0.  But  not  social  self-consciousness;  for  "social  conscious- 
ness" is  a  part  of  "individual  consciousness**  jusl  as 
self-consciousness  is  ("Prolegomena  to  Social  Psy- 
chology," in  A.  J.  8.,  IV,  656-65,  807-22,  V.  98-109,  220- 
27;  idem,  "Is  Society  a  Psychical  Unity?"  in  A.  J. 
8.,  X,  66G-71,  replying  to  Romanzo  Adams). 

2.  Romanzo  Adams  holds  that  the  unity  of  society  is  "purely 

objective,  and,  hence,  not  psychic"  ("The  Nature  of  the 
Social  Unity,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  208-27). 

III.  Franklin  H.  Giddings's  Conception  of  Social  Mind  and 
Social  Consciousness  (Principles,  17.  132-52).  See  above,  Sec- 
tion I,  and  the  references  there  given. 

IV.  George  E.  Vincent's  View  (Social  Mind  and  lid  mat  ion,  1897. 
See  Adams,  op.  cit.,  223  ff.). 

V.  Charles  H.  Cooley's  Teaching  {Soda!  Organization,  3  ff.,  L07 
ff.;  idem,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  17-2(1;  espe- 
cially, "Social  Consciousness,"  with  discussion,  in  A.  J.  8., 
XII,  1907,  675-94;  or  the  same  in  American  Sociological  Soci- 
ety, Publications,  I,  97-11G). 

VI.  Wilhelm  Wundt's  Theory  of  the  Social  Mind  or  Volkseele 
i  Vblikerpsychologie,  I.  1  ff.  Cf.  Davis.  Psychological  Interpreta- 
tions, 42-44). 

VJI.  Alfred  Fouillee's  Contributions. 

1.  "Every  individual  consciousness  is  ...  a  social  conscious- 

ness" (La  science  sociale  content porainc,  1S85.  p.  226). 

2.  Tlis  doctrine  of  "idea  forces";  compare  with  Ward's  doc- 

trine of  the  desires  as  social  forces  |  Fouillee,  La 
psychologic    d<*    idccs-forccs,    189"i;    idem.    L'<  rolution- 


14  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

nisme   des   i dees-forces,    1898.     Cf.    Davis,    Interpreta- 
tions, 44-45). 

VI U.  William  McDougalls  View  (Social  Psychology,  174  ff., 
I'D!)  ff.,  passim?    Cf.  Section  III,  above). 

IX.  The  Ward- Schopenhauer  Doctrine  of  the  Will  and  its  Con- 
sequences for  the  Conception  of  the  Social  Will  (Ward,  Psychic 
Factors,  59-62,  30-35,  50-58;  Schopenhauer,  Welt  als  Wille,  I, 
131,  passim.  Compare  the  conception  of  "volition"  offered  by 
McDougall,  Social  Psyclwlogy,  228  ff.,  249  ff.,  175  ff.). 

X.  Davis's  Analysis  of  the  Social  Mind  (Psychological  Interpre- 
tations, 67  ff.). 

PREFERENCES. 

Ellwood  and  Adams,  as  above  cited ;  Ward,  Psychic  Factors,  30-70. 
on  "will,"  "soid."  "eonative  faculty."  "philosophy  of  desire"  ;  idem.  Pure 
Sociology,  119  ff.,  136-44 ;  Dealey  and  Ward,  Text-Book  of  Sociology,  60-75 ; 
Giddings,  Elements,  119-28;  idem,  Principles,  17.  72,  132-52;  idem,  Descrip- 
tive and  Historical  Sociology,  124-85,  275  ff.,  326  ff . ;  Vincent,  as  cited; 
Bosanquet,  "The  Eeality  of  the  General  Will,"  in  International  Journal  of 
Ethics,  IV  (1893).  No.  3;  Lewes.  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind,  3d  series,  I. 
159-70 ;  Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  25  ff. ;  Lloyd,  "The  Social  Will,"  in  A.  J.  S., 
VIII.  336-59;  Cooley.  Social  Organization,  3  ff.,  107  ff . ;  idem.  Human  Na- 
ture and  the  Social  Order,  17-20  (social  will)  ;  Shepard,  "Public  Opinion," 
in  A.  J.  S.,  XV,  32-60 ;  Davis,  "Public  Opinion  and  Socialization,"  in 
Psychological  Interpretations,  229-37;  Coleman,  Social  Ethics.  111-71 
("social  mind"  and  "social  conscience"). 


Section    IV.      Rise    op    Social    Psychology    as   a    Specialized 
Division  op  Psychological  Sociology. 

A.     Various  Special  Contributions. 

I.  Baldwin   (J.  M.). 

1.  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Mental  Develop- 

ment (3d  ed.,  N.  Y.,  1902).  Reviewed  by  Caldwell 
(W),  in  A.  J.  S.,  V  (1899-1900),  182-92;  by  Tufts,  in 
Psychological  Review  (June,  1898)  ;  Dewey,  in  Philo- 
sophical Review  (July,  1898)  ;  and  these  answered  by 
Baldwin,  Interpretations,  589  ff.  A  very  important 
contribution  to  genetic  social  psychology,  a  field  neg- 
lected by  Tarde.     This  is  supplemented  by: 

2.  Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race   (N.  Y., 

1895) ;  and 

3.  Fragments    in    Philosophy    and    Science    (N.    Y.,    1902), 

Essay  IX. 


CHARACTERISTICS.  1.1 

II.  EllW00d    (Charles  A.). 

1.  "Prolegomena    i<>   Social   Psychology,"    in   .1.   ■/.   8.,    IV 

i  is:»s- is!)!)).  656-65,  S07 -^li',  V  (1899^1900),  98-109,  22& 
27.  A  strong  discussion  of  the  unit//  of  society.  Should 
be  read  with  Adams's  article;  and  it  is  supplemented 
by  Ellwood's  reply  to  Adams  in  A.  ■/.  8.,  X  i  19(14-1905). 
666-671.     See  Section  III  above. 

2.  "A  Psychological  Theory  of  Revolutions."  in  .1.  ./.  >S'..  XI 

(1905-1906),  49-59. 

3.  "The  Theory  of  Imitation,"  in  .1.  ./.  X..  VI    (1900-1901), 

721-41.     Should  be  read  with  Tarde. 

III.  Fogel  (P.  EL).  "Metaphysical  Elements  in  Sociology/'  in 
A.  J.  8.,  X  (1904-1905),  354-81,  501-30.  Discussed  by  Hayes 
(E.  C),  in  A.  d.  8.,  XI    i  1!)()5-1906),  023-45. 

IV.  Le  Bon  (Gnstave).  Characteristics  of  his  style  and  method; 
his  exaggerations,  his  bias  against  socialism;  his  relation  to 
Sighele  and  Tarde. 

1.  The   Cioird.      .  I    Slut}//   of   the   Popular   Mind    (4th   imp., 

London,  1903). 

2.  The  Psychology  of  Peoples  (X.  Y.,  1898). 

3.  The  Psychology  of  Socialism   (X.  Y..  1899). 

V.  Sidis  (Boris).  The  Psychology  of  Suggestion  i  N.  V..  1906). 
Compare  on  suggestion  the  works  of  Binet,  Thomas,  Ochoro- 
wiez,  and  Vigoroux  and  Juquelier  cited  below  in  Section  VII. 

VI.  Carpenter  (W,  B.).  Mental  Physiology  (1875).  His  prin- 
ciple of  "expectancy''  identical  with  "suggestion"  (see  Ward, 
in  Science,  X.  S..  XXVIII,  54). 

VII.  Michailovsky.     The  Heroes  and  the  Crouod:    Heroi  i  ToVpa 

(1882,  1890).    An  anticipation  of  Tarde's  teachings  (see  Ward, 
in  Science,  N.  S..  XXVIII.  54). 

VIII.  Sumner  (W.  G.).  Folkways  (Boston,  L907).  A  mass  of 
facts  and  generalizations  available  for  illustration  in  social 
psychology. 

IX.  Tosti  (Gustave).    A  disciple  of  Tarde. 

1.  "Social  Psychology  and  Sociology."  in  Psychological  Re- 
ricir,  July.  1898. 


16  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

2.  "The  Delusions  of  Durkheim's  Sociological  Objectivisms," 
in  A.  J.  8.,  IV  (1898-1899),  171-77. 

X.  Vincent  (George  E.).  The  Social  Mind  and  Education  (N. 
Y.,  1897.    Reviewed  in  A.  J.  8.,  IV,  99). 

XI.  Sighele  (Scipio).  Shares  with  Tarde  the  credit  of  develop- 
ing the  psychology  of  the  public  as  opposed  to  that  of  the 
crowd;  and  he  anticipated  Le  Bon  in  crowd-psychology  (Cf. 
Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  35-36,  notes). 

1.  La  foule  criminelle  (Paris,  1892;  2d  ed.,  1901). 

2.  Psi/cJiologie  des  sectes  (Paris,  1898). 

XII.  Simmel  (Georg).  One  of  the  ablest  and  most  scientific 
sociologists  of  Germany. 

1.  Ueber  sociale  Differ enzierung  (Liepzig,  1890). 

2.  "Superiority    and    Subordination     as     Subject-Matter   of 

Sociology,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  II  (1896-97),  167-89,  392-415. 

3.  "The   Persistence   of   Social    Groups,"    in   A.   J.    8.,   Ill 

(1897-1898),  622-98,  829-36,  IV   (1898-1899),  35-50. 

4.  "The  Number  of  Members  as  Determining  the  Sociological 

Form  of  the  Group,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  VIII  (1902-1903), 
1-46,  158-96. 

5.  Einleitung  m  die  Moralicissenscliaft   (1892).     An  impor- 

tant contribution  to  social  ethics. 

6.  "The  Sociology  of  Secrecy  and  Secret  Societies,"  in  A. 

J.  8.,  XI  (1906),  441-98. 

7.  Soziologie:   Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Formen  der  Gesell- 

schaft   (Leipzig,  1908). 

XIII.  Thomas  (W.  I.).    His  excellent  equipment,  his  originality. 

1.  "Province  of  Social  Psychology,"  in  Congress  of  Arts  and 

Science,  V,  860-68 ;  also  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  445-55.  One 
of  the  most  suggestive  discussions  of  the  field  which 
the  future  psychology  of  society  may  occupy. 

2.  "The  Scope  and  the  Method  of  Folk  Psychology,"  in  A. 

J.  S.,  I  (1895-1896),  434-45. 

3.  "Psychology  of  Modesty  and  Clothing,"   in  A.  J.  S.,  V 

(1899-1900),  246-62;  or  in  Sex  and  Society,  201-20. 

4.  "Psychology  of  Race-Prejudice,"  in  A.  J.   S.,  IX    (1903- 

1904),  593-611. 

5.  "The  Gaming  Instinct,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  750-63. 

6.  Sex  and  Society  (Chicago,  1907). 


CHARACTERISTICS.  1  • 

XIV.  Ross  (Edward  A.).  Characteristics  <>r  ais  Btyle  and 
method;  independence  and  originality  of  conception;  fertility 

of  illustrations. 

1.  Foundations  of  Sociology  <  X.  V.,  L905),  chaps,  y,  vi.  viii, 

ix  i in  part). 

2.  Social  Control  (N.  Y.,  1901).     Bighly  original  contribu- 

tion to  the  psychology  of  society. 

3.  "Recent  Problems  of  Social   Psychology,"  in  Congress  of 

Arts  and  Science,  V,  869-82;  or  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  456-72. 
Best  survey  of  the  proper  field  of  social  psychology. 

4.  Sin  and  Society  (Boston,  1907).    A  unique  and  luminous 

contribution  to  social  ethics. 

XV.  Other  Writers. 

1.  The  great  importance  of  Tarde  for  social   psychology   is 

accented  below  in  Section  V. 

2.  For    the     contributions    of    Adams,    Cooler,    Durklieim. 

Fouillee,  Giddings,  Small,  Ward.  Wuudt.  and  others, 
see  the  preceding  sections. 

B.    Systematic  Works. 

I.  Davis  (Michael  M.).  Psychological  Interpretations  of  Soci- 
ety (N.  Y.,  1909). 

1.  "Section  I:    The  Social  Mind."     An  able  historical  and 

anal}'tic  account  of  the  rise  of  social   psychology. 

2.  "Section  II:    Social  Function."     A  reprint,  with  modifi- 

cations, of  an  earlier  monograph  on  Gabriel  Tarde  (N. 
Y.,  1906).  An  exceUent  comparative  study  of  Tarde's 
writings  and  theories. 

3.  "Section  III :    Applications." 

II.  McDougall  (William).  An  introduction  to  Social  Psychol- 
ogy (Boston,  1909).  An  acute  examination  of  the  Mental 
Phenomena  on  which  Social  Psychology  rests.  Reviewed  by 
Leuba,  in  Mind,  XX  (1909),  285-89. 

1.  Mistakes  in  the  social  sciences  due  to  ignorance  ol  psy- 

chology  (pp.  1-18). 

2.  "Section  I:    The  Mental  Characters  of  Man  of  Primary 

Importance  for  his  Life  in  Society"    (pp.  19-264). 
a.  The  instincts. 

1).  The  sentiments  and  complex  emotions;  importance  of 
the  self-regarding  sentiment. 
2 


IS  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

c.  The  growth  of  self-consciousness;  of  the  self-regarding 

sentiment. 

d.  The  advance  to  the  higher  plane  of  social  conduct. 

e.  Volition  or  the  doctrine  of  conation. 

3.  "Section  II :  The  Operation  of  the  Primary  Tendencies 
of  the  Human  Mind  in  the  Life  of  Societies"  (pp.  265- 
351). 

III.  Ross    (Edward   A.).     Social  Psychology:    An   Outline  and 
Source  Book  (N.  Y.,  1908). 

1.  Character  and  scope  of  the  work  (see  Section  VI  below). 

2.  Contents  of  the  work  (analyzed  in  detail  in  the  following 

sections  of  this  syllabus). 


Section  V.     The  Theories  op  Gabriel  Tarde  (1843-1903). 
A.     Biography  and  Bibliography. 

I.  Biography,  Scientific  and  Professional. 

1.  Born  at  Sarlat,  Dodogne,  1843.     For  18  years  at  Sarlat 

he  was  "juge  d'instruction." 

2.  Began  writing  for  Revue  Philosophique,  1880 ;  first  studies 

of  repetition  and  imitation  in  that  journal  (1882-1884)  ; 
published  La  criminalite  comparce  (1886;  2d  ed.,  1890)  ; 
and  La  philosophic  penale  (1890;  2d  ed.,  1891);  and 
Les  lois  de  V Imitation  (1890). 

3.  Became   head   of  Bureau  of   Statistics   for   Ministry   of 

Justice  at  Paris,  1894-1900. 

4.  Lectures  at  College  Libre  des  Sciences  Sociales   (1897)  ; 

these  published  (1898)  as  Les  lois  sociales;  and  trans- 
lated (1899). 

5.  Professor  of  Modern   Philosophy   in  College  de  France, 

1900-1903. 

II.  Tarde's  writings. 

1.  The  four  principal   books   comprehending  his  system   of 
sociology  proper. 
a.  Les  lois  de  limitation  (1890;  2d  ed.,  1895;  3d  ed.,  1900; 

Eng.  trans.,  1903). 
6.  La  logique  sociale  (1895). 

c.  Uopposition  universelle  (1897). 

d.  Les  lois  sociales  (1898;  Eng.  trans,  1899). 


CHARACTERISTICS.  19 

2.  Other  works   including  at   least  97  articles    (see    Davis, 
Gabriel  Tarde,  Lll-17). 

li.     Davis's  Analysis  of  the  Elements  of  Tardus  System   (Got 

Uriel  Tarde,  5-25,  especially  17.     Of.  the  Prefaces  t<> 

Parsons's  trans,  of  Lotos  of   Imitation). 

I.  "The  Source  of  Social  Actions  is  in  Individual  Initiatives 
Expressed  in  New  Ideas  and  Procedures  Called  I  mentions." 

II.  "The  Essentially  Social  and  Socializing  Act  is  Imitation, 
By  Which  Inventions  Become  More  or  Less  Socially  Accepted 
and  Socially  Influential." 

III.  The  Origin  of  an  Invention  is  Influenced  by: 

1.  "The  inherent  difficulty  of  combining  mentally  the  ideas 

whose  combination  is  the  invention.'' 

2.  "The  grades  of  innate  mental  ability  in  society." 

3.  "The  social  conditions  favoring  mental  alertness  and  the 

expression  of  ability." 

4.  Query:    Does  Tarde  neglect  the  influence  of  prestige  and 

social  need  in  origin  of  inventions?  (see  Davis,  Gabriel 
Tarde,  13-14,  17,  note;  idem.  Psychological  Interpreta- 
tions, 93-94,  97,  note). 

IV.  "The  Imitation  of  an  Invention  is  Affected  by  : 

1.  "The  general  law  that  imitations  spread  from  their  ini- 

tial center  in  geometrical  progression,  with  regard  to 
the  number  of  persons  affected.'' 

2.  "Physical  and  biological  influences,  including  race  char- 

acteristics; the  general  law  being  that  'imitations  are 
refracted  by  their  media.' " 

3.  "Social  influences: 

a.  "Logical:    the  agreement  or  disagreement    of   the   new- 

invention  with  the  inventions  already   more  or   less 
socially  accepted  (imitated)." 

b.  "Extra-logical : 

1)  "Ideas    are     transmitted     before     means:     imitation 

goes  </h  interioribus  ad  exterwra." 

2)  "Imitation    proceeds   from    the   socially    superior   to 

the  socially  inferior." 

3)  "Ages  of  custom,  in  which  the  past  has  peculiar  pres- 

tige,   alternate    with    ages    of    fashion,    in    which 
prestige  is  possessed  by  the  novel  and  the  foreign." 


20  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

C.     Suggestions  for  Critical  Study  of  Tarde. 

I.  Tarde's  Conception  Of: 

1.  Motives  as  composed  of  quantitative  or  measurable 
a.  Beliefs   and 

I).  Desires;  while 

2.  Sensations  are  "individual  and   incommunicable   states" 

(see  the  criticism  by  Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  18  ff.,  26  ff . ; 
idem,  Psychological  Interpretations,  99  ff.,  107  ff.). 

II.  What  is  Imitation? 

1.  Its  scope  and  limits   (Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  48-64). 

2.  Imitation  and  suggestion  in  society  (Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde, 

65-88). 

III.  The  Imperfections  of  Tarde's  System. 

IV.  The  Forerunners  of  Tarde  (see  the  literature  in  Davis, 
Gabriel  Tarde,  28  ff.,  and  the  footnotes;  idem,  Psychological 
Interpretations,  107-42). 

V.  For  further  consideration  of  Tarde's  theories,  see  Sections 
XII-XIII,  below. 

REFERENCES. 

I.  On  Tarde  and  His  System. — Davis  (M.  M.),  Gabriel  Tarde:  An  Essay 
in  Sociological  Theory  (N.  Y.,  1906)  ;  idem,  Psychological  Interpretations 
of  Society  (N.  Y.,  1909),  81-190;  Giddings,  Principles,  14  ft-..  111.  112,  134, 
400  ft.;  Small,  General  Sociology,  Index;  Ross,  Foundations,  260-62,  and 
Index;  New  International  Encyclopedia,  at  "Tarde";  Worms  (R.)>  in 
Revue  Int.  de  Sociologie,  XII  (1904),  397;  Levasseur  (E.)  and  others,  in 
ibid.,  XII  (1904),  527;  Tosti  (G.),  "The  Sociological  Theories  of  Gabriel 
Tarde,"  in  Pol.  Sci.  Quarterly,  XII  (1897),  490;  idem,  in  Science,  X.  S., 
XV  (1902),  551;  Ward  (L.  F.),  in  Science,  X.  S.,  XI  (1900),  260;  idem, 
Pure  Sociology,  Index ;  and  the  works  cited  by  Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde, 
116-17;  idem,  Psychological  Interpretations,  259-60. 

II.  Other  Writers  on  Imitation. — Cournot  (A.),  V enchainment  des 
indees  fundamentals  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1861)  ;  Bagehot  (W.),  Physics  and 
Politics  (1st  ed.,  1872).  on  "Xation-making" ;  James  (W.),  "Great  Men 
and  Their  Environment,"  in  Atlantic  (Aug.  1880)  ;  or  the  same  in  Will  to 
Believe  (X.  Y.,  1897)  ;  Royce  (J.),  "The  Imitative  Functions  and  Their 
Place  in  Human  Nature,"  Century,  XLVIII  (1894),  137-45;  Maine  (H.), 
Dissertations  on  Early  Laic  and  Custom  (1883),  284-85;  and  other  writers 
mentioned  by  Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  chap.  ii.  See  also  Royce.  "Social 
Automatism  and  the  Imitation  Theory."  in  Mind,  XXIV  (1890),  167-75; 
Baldwin,  "Dr.  Bosanquet  on  Imitation,"  in  Psychological  Review,  IX 
(1902),  597;  Bosanquet's  article  relating  to  "Imitation,"  in  ibid.,  IX,  383; 
Elhvood,  "The  Theory  of  Imitation  in  Social  Psychology."  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI, 
721;  Kovalevsky,  in  Annales  de  VInst.  Intemat.  de  Sociologie,  X  (1903), 
253;  McDougalf.  Social  Psychology,  90-120,  325-51. 


CHARACTERISE  21 

Section  VI.     The  Province  of  Social  Psychology. 

J.  The  Place  of  Social   Psychology  in  Genera]    Psychology 

1.  Individual  psychology  or  intra-mental  phenomena   is  the 

Itasis  of  social  or  inter-mental  phenomena  (Thomas,  in 
.1.  ,/.  8.,  X,  455  !V. ;  Ellwood,  in  A.  J.  8.,  IV.  656  if.,  V, 
98  IT.). 

2.  Ross's  analysis  of  human  psychology   (A.  •/.  8.,  X,  456- 

72). 

a.  General  psychology:    dealing  with  thai   which  is  com- 

mon to  all  minds. 

1)  Individual    psychology:     "concerned    with    mind    as 

acted  upon  by  things  and  experiences." 

2)  Intci-individual    psychology:     concerned    with    mind 

as  acted  upon  by  other  minds.  This  belongs  to 
social  psychology. 

b.  Special    psychology:    "dealing   with    differentia   which 

mark  oil*  one  category  of  minds  from  another." 

1)  One  section   '"determining  the  mental   traits  of  an- 

thropic  varieties,  such  as  races,  sexes,  ages,  tem- 
peraments,  types." 

2)  One  section   determining   the   mental   traits  of   "so- 

cietal varieties,  such  as  nationalities,  classes,  cul- 
ture-grades,'' etc.  This  also  belongs  to  social 
psychology;  and  inquires  how  a  person  is  "affected 
by  variations  in  work,  reward,  mode  of  life,  or 
tradition." 

c.  The  resulting  domain  of  social  psychology. 

1)  The  resulting  problems  of  inter-individual    psychol- 

ogy (A.  J.  8.,  X.  457-68;  or  Congress  of  Art*  and 
Science,  V.  S70-78). 

a)  Problems  connected  with  personal  relationship. 

b)  Problems  connected  with  social  groupings. 

2)  The  resulting  problems   of  ''societal   varieties"    (na- 

tionalities, classes,  etc.). 

a)  Those  dealing  with  the  differenticB  of  peoples  (A. 

J.  8.,  X.  tt')8-70;  or  Congress  of  Arts  >m<l  Science, 
X.  878-80). 

b)  Those  dealing  with  class-types  in  each  people  (A. 

J.  8.,  X.  no  ff.;  or  Congress  of  Art.-;  <tn<t  8cience} 
V,  880-82). 


22  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

3)  Thomas's  survey  of  the  typical  problems  comprised 
in  the  "Province  of  Social  Psychology"  (A.  J.  8., 
X,  445-55;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts  and 
Science,  V,  860  ff.). 

II.  Proposed  Definitions  of  Social  Psychology. 

1.  Thomas:    the  "Study  of  the  individual  mental  processes 

in  so  far  as  they  are  conditioned  by  society,  and  the 
social  processes  in  so  far  as  they  are  conditioned  by 
states  of  consciousness."     Its  province  is  the   "exam- 
ination of  the  interaction  of  individual  consciousness 
and  society,  and  the  effect  of  the  interaction  on  indi- 
vidual consciousness  on  the  one  hand  and  on  society  on 
the  other"  (A.  J.  8.,  X,  445-46;  or  the  same  in  Congress 
of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  860-61)  : 
a.  Hence  social   psychology   may   "make  either   the   indi- 
vidual or  society  the  object  of  attention  at  a  given 
moment." 
&.  It   is   an   "extension   of   individual   psychology   to   the 
phenomena  of  'collective  life.'  " 

2.  Kiilpe  :   the  "science  which  treats  of  the  mental  phenomena 

dependent  upon  a  community  of  individuals"  (Out- 
lines of  Psychology,  7;  cf.  Ellwood,  in  A.  J.  8.,  IV,  656). 

3.  Ellwood :    an  examination  of  the  form  or  mechanism  of 

"group  psychical  processes" ;  the  "psychical  phenomena 
pertaining  to  group-life  as  such" ;  an  "interpretation  of 
the  psychical  processes  manifested  in  the  growth  and 
functioning  of  a  group  as  a  unity"  (A.  J.  S.,  IV,  456-57, 
V,  105-109). 

a.  Implies  the  existence  of  "inter-individual  psychical  pro- 

cesses" :  for  example,  the  phenomena  of  revolution, 
mob-action,  group-action,  etc. 

b.  It  does  not  offer  a  complete  interpretation  of  society; 

but  it  offers  the  subjective  as  opposed  to  the  ob- 
jective interpretation. 

c.  Sociology  is  the   "synthesis  of  the  objective  with  the 

subjective  interpretation  of  society."  Accordingly, 
may  there  be  a  subjective  or  psychological  philosophy 
of  history?    (see  Ellwood  in  A.  J.  8.,  IV,  658-60). 

d.  The  "fundamental  fact"  in  social  psychology  is  therefore 

"social  co-ordination"  or  group-functioning  (action). 


CHABACTBRIBTICB.  23 

This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  mere  "co-operation" 
(Ellwood  in  A.  ■/.  8.,  EV,  807-22;  compare  Giddings, 
Elements,  77-78). 
li   Social  or  group  habit;  custom,  organization,   insti- 
tution, social  product. 
2)   Crisis,  transition,  adaptation  or  accommodation. 
e.  Theories  of  "social  selection"   (Ellwood,  A.  •/.  8.,   IV. 
820-22;  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations. 
L83-85,  192  ff.). 

4.  Davis:   "We  may  regard  the  physical  and  biological  con- 

ditions of  this  co-operative  action  ( /.  e.,  the  "concerted 
action"  of  individuals  in  society);  we  may  investigate 
the  forms  of  institutions  through  which  it  passes;  or 
we  may  look  inwardly  to  the  feelings,  thoughts,  brain- 
states  and  impulses  which  accompany,  illuminate,  and 
.  .  .  guide  the  action.  In  the  first  case  our  sociology 
is  biological  or  ethnological;  in  the  second,  historical 
and  analytic;  in  the  third,  psychological"  (Psycholog- 
ical Interpretation*,  9-10). 

5.  Ross:    "Social  psychology     .      .      .     studies  the  psychic 

planes  and  currents  that  come  into  existence  an 
men  in  consequence  of  their  association.  It  seeks  to 
understand  and  account  for  those  uniformities  in  feel- 
ing, belief,  or  volition — and  hence  in  action — which 
are  due  to  the  interaction  of  human  beings,  i.  e„  to 
social  causes  .  .  .  Social  psychology  differs  from  so- 
ciology proper  in  that  the  former  considers  planes  and 
currents,  the  latter  groups  and  structures"  [Social 
Psychology,  1-2.  Compare  his  distinction  between  mob 
or  crowd  psychology  and  normal  group  psychology  in 
Foundations,  8,  182,  257  ff.).  Accordingly,  it  deals 
primarily  with  psychic  parallelisms  due  to  the  action 
of  mind  niton  mind;  and  but  secondarily  with  psychic 
uniformities  arising  in  non-psychic  parallelisms.  Ex- 
amples : 
a.   Mental  uniformities  due   to   the  action   of  epidemic   or 

famine,  flood  or  earthquake,  are  excluded. 
6.  Uniformities  due  to  the  action  of  common  physical  en- 
vironment or  similar  conditions  of  life  are  likewise 
excluded. 


24  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

c.  Query:  Will  strict  acceptance  of  this  definition,  as 
illustrated  under  a  and  b,  too  much  narrow  and  im- 
poverish the  field  of  social  psychology? 

(/.  Problem:  Contrary  to  Ross's  view,  should  not  so-called 
race  mental  traits  be  included? 

III.  Scope  of  Social  Psychology.  According  to  Ross,  in  Har- 
mony with  his  Definition,  it  Comprises  two  Unequal  Elements 
or  Factors  (Social  Psychology,  chap.  i). 

1.  Social  ascendancy:    influence  of  the  social   environment 

(the  many)  on  the  one. 

2.  Individual  ascendancy:    influence  of  superior  persons  on 

the  social  environment  (the  many). 

3.  Examples  of  this  dualism;  and  also  of  the  psychic  and 

non-psychic. 

a.  Chivalry :    creation  of  its  ideal. 

b.  Public  or  state  education :   the  belief  in  it. 

c.  Status  of  slavery  sentiment  in  1860 :   three  sources. 

d.  Religious  confessions  in  Europe:    three  factors. 

1)  Confession  and  race:   Taylor's  theory  (Origin  of  the 

Aryans,  247-49)  :    is  this  social? 

2)  Influence  of  great  men. 

3)  Authority  of  numbers  and  tradition:    is  this  social? 

4.  The  respective  roles  of  affinity,  imitation,  sympathy,  and 

rationality  in  the  rise  of  uniformities  (Adams,  Civili- 
zation and  Decay;  Demolins,  Anglo-Saxon  Superiority, 
170-201;  Bose,  Hindu  Civilization,  II,  123  ff;  Gulick, 
Evolution  of  the  Japanese;  and  illustrations  in  Ross, 
Foundations,  chap,  vi,  116  ff. ;  idem,  Social  Psychology, 
9). 

IV.  Critical  Estimate  of  the  Value  of  Ross's  Conception  of  Social 
Psychology  (for  reviews  of  his  book,  see  Ell  wood,  in  Psy- 
chological Bulletin,  V,  No.  12,  Dec,  1908;  Vincent  in  A.  J.  S., 
XIV,  681-87;  Ward,  in  Science,  N.  S.,  XXVIII,  54-56;  Tufts, 
in  Journal  of  Philosophy,  Psychology,  and  Scientific  Methods, 
357-61;  and  Edinburgh  Review,  CCIX,  500). 

1.  With  Tarde,  in  effect,  Ross  confines  the  subject  mainly 
to  the  general  field  of  suggestion-imitation,  but  his 
analysis  is  more  complete;  while  he  deals  more  effect- 
ively than  does  Tarde  with  the  actualities  of  modern 
social  life. 


CHARACTERISTICS.  -•"» 

2.  Lii.uir.ill>  a  complete  view  of  social  psychology  requirt 
broader  treatmenl  of  the  psychic  life  of  groups;  bul  the 
restriction  favors  an  economic  division  of  labor    (see 
the  "Prefatory  Note"  to  this  volume). 

REFERENCES. 
Ross,  Foundations,  8,   L82,  257  BE.;  idem,  "Present  Pro  oi  Social 

Psychology,"  in  .1.  ./.  8.,  X,  456-72;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts  and 
Science,  \.  869-82;  idem,  "The  Nature  and  Scope  of  Social  Psychology," 
in  A.. I.  .s'.,  XIII,  577-83;  Thomas,  "Province  of  Social  Psychology,"  in  I. 
•/.  Sf.,  x.   145-55;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts  nmi  Sdei  u-68; 

Ellwood,  "Prolegomena  to  Social  Psychology,"  in  i.  -/.  8.,  IN'.  6£ 
807-22,  Y.  98-109,  220-27;  Hayes,  "Sociology  ami  Psychology;  Sociology  and 
Geography,"  in  .1.  ./.  8.,  XIV.  371-407;  Ward  "Sociology  and  Psychology," 
in  I.  J.  8.,  I.  iiis-:;::;  idem,  Dynamic  Sociology,  I.  chap,  v;  Giddings,  "The 
Psychology  of  Society."  in  Science,  X.  s..  IX  (1899),  in-:.'::-,  idem,  "A 
Theory  of  Social  Causation."  in  American  Economic  Association,  Publica- 
tions, 3d  series,  V,  383-443,  with  discusion  by  Small,  Cooley.  Ward,  and 
others;  Rondelet,  Philosophie  des  sciences  sociales:  le  psychisme  sarin! 
i  L894)  ;  Brinton.  The  Basis  of  Social  Relations:  I  study  in  Ethnic  Psychol- 
ogy (1902)  :  Crowell,  The  Logical  Process  of  so,-inJ  Development,  MS98); 
Tarde,  Psychologic  6conomique  (2  vols.,  1902)  ;  idem,  Mude  <!<■  psychologic 
sociiilc  (1S98).  Consult  the  other  writings  cited  in  this  Section  and  in 
Sect  ion   I II  above. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SUGGESTIBILITY  AND   IMITATION. 


Section  VII.     Suggestion  and  its  Variations. 

A.  What  is  Suggestion?  (On  the  definitions,  see  Davis,  Gabriel 
Tarde,  G5-GG;  idem,  Psychological  Interpretations,  164  ff. ; 
Ross,  Social  Psychology,  chap.  ii}. 

I.  Extent  of  Suggestibility. 

1.  In  normal  subjects  or  mental  conditions. 

2.  In    abnormal     subjects    or    mental    conditions:    hypotie 

suggestion;  theories  of  hypnotism  (read  Titchener's 
article  in  New  Internal.  Uncyc,  X,  405-407). 

a.  Theory  of  Charcot  and  his  followers  at  the  Salpetriere: 
a  pathological  phenomenon  similar  to  hysteria,  with 
three  distinct  stages  (see  works  of  Janet,  Charcot, 
Binet  and  Fere). 

I).  Theory  of  Bernheim  and  the  school  of  Nancy :  a  phe- 
nomenon due  to  suggestion ;  a  "unitary  state" ;  it 
may  be  set  up  in  normal  subjects  or  mental  condi- 
tions. This  theory  is  now  generally  accepted  (see 
the  works  of  Bernheim,  Moll,  Jastrow,   Sidis). 

II.  Place  of  Suggestion  in  Psychology  (Ross,  Social  Psychology, 
10-11). 

1.  The  old  psychology  was  individualistic :    the  contents  of 

the  mind  looked  upon  as  the  results  of  personal  experi- 
ences:   elaboration  of  ideas  from  sense-perceptions. 

2.  The    new    psychology    takes    note   of   the   higher   mental 

products  due  to  the  stimuli  of  others  rather  than  to 
internal  stimuli:  examples:  beliefs,  ideals,  valuations, 
etc. 

III.  Baldwin's  Definition :  "From  the  Side  of  Consciousness" 
Suggestion  is  "the  Tendency  of  a  Sensory  or  an  Ideal  State, 
to  be  Followed  by  a  Motor  State"  (Mental  DereJopment,  107. 
Cf.  Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  66-67;  idem,  Psychological  Interpre- 
tations, 165-66;  and  compare  Baldwin,  Handbook  of  Psychol- 
ogy, II,  297;  Ross,  Social  Control,  146-47). 

(26) 


SUGGESTIBILITY   AND    IMITATION.  -~ 

1.  The  presentation  to  consciousness  :    "It  is  not   the  manner 

of  presenting  the  idea,  bu1   the  way  in  which  reaction 
takes  place"  |  Loewenfeld, ::";  Davis.  Gabriel  Tarde,  67). 

2.  The  "essential   quality  of  the  action   of  suggestion":  a 

••mental  disaggregation"  or  a  "narrowing  of  conscious- 
ness"   (Wundt,   Hypnoti8mu8)  :    its  causes? 

IV.   Relation  of  Suggestion  to  Imitation. 

1.  Tarde's  Theory  of  the  relation:   ••Society  is  imitation,  ami 
imitation  is  a  species  of  somnambulism,"  /'.  '•..  due  to 
"suggestion";  social  similarity  is  the  result  of  tlie  pro- 
cess of  suggestion-imitation  (Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation, 
74-88,  especially,  7»;.  77,  87). 
a.  First  criticism:   similarities  in  animal  and  human  socie- 
ties are  not  solely  the  results  of   imitation    I  Davis. 
Gabriel  Tarde,  48-64). 
J).  Second    criticism:     experimental    tests    show    that    sug- 
gestion-imitation   is   hut   one   of  the    various    causes 
of  reaction  or  response  to  stimuli   (consider  the  ex- 
periments in  Davis,  op.  cit.,  <;r>-88;  and  compare  .1//'. 
Journal  of  Psychology,  11.  493)  ;  role  of  "mass-ap- 
perceptions"; of  continuity  and  cooperation  in  mental 
functioning. 
-.  Suggestions  in  normal  as  well   as  abnormal    (hypnotic) 
subjects   is   related   to   imitation   as   is   cause   to   effect  : 
but  there  are  other  causes  of  social  similarity;  and  the 
relative  importance  of  suggestion  as  a   factor  in  indi- 
vidual and  social  life  is  decreasing. 
a.  The  "crowd"  is  yielding  to  the  "public"  (see  later  syl- 
labus). 
6.   Role  of  public  opinion;   influences  which  produce  criti- 
cism and  discussion  in  its  formation  (Davis.  Gabriel 
Tarde,   S3-88;   idem,   Psychological    Interpretations, 
L87-90). 

B.    Variation  of  Suggestibility  (See  especially  Ross,  social  Con- 
trol. L46-79;  idem,  Social  Psychology,  chap.  ii). 

I.  Species:    in   Solitary  and  in  Gregarious  Animals. 

II.  Race:    English,  Slav.  French.  Irish,  etc. 

III.  Age:    in  Children;   in   Adults    (Cooley,    Hainan    Nature  end 
the  Social  Order,  14-44;  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpre 


28  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

/a lions,  237   ff. ;  idem,  Mental  Development,  chap,   vi ;   Ross, 
Social  Control,  chap.  xiv). 

IV.  Temperament:    Coe's  Experiments  (The  Spiritual  Life,  119 

if.). 

V.  Sex:  Women  More  Subject  to  Suggestion  Than  Men  (Ellis, 
Man  and  Woman,  258-90.  chap,  xii;  Sidis,  Psychology  of  Sug- 
gestion, 311-12,  362). 

VI.  Mental  Condition: 

1.  In  normal  condition;   favored  by  distraction  or  absent 

mindedness  (Sidis,  11-13,  18-19,  34,  46-4!)). 

2.  In  hypnotic  condition  (Sidis,  chaps,  vii,  viii,  255-57,  80-90; 

Moll,  chaps,  iii,  v,  on  post-hypnotic  memory  and  sug- 
gestion, and  "retro-active  suggestion"). 

3.  Hysteria  heightens  suggestibility;  Nordau's  theory  of  de- 

generacy  in   art   and    literature    (Degeneration,  25-26, 
32-44)  ;  the  theory  not  wholly  adequate. 

4.  Oriental  juggling  in   part  explained  by  suggestion    (the 

mango  tree  trick:   Bose,  Hindu  Civilization,  II,  152-54). 

5.  Fasting   increases   suggestibility    (see   Rostand's    Cyrano 

de  Bergerac,  164-65). 

VII.  Suggestibility  Varies  According  to  the  Source  (Ross,  Social 
Control,  275-78;  Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order, 
283-325,  on  "Leadership  or  Personal  Ascendancy";  Le  Ron, 
The  Crowd,  133-40)  :  role  of  Prestige;  of  Pomp  and  Splendor 
in  Monarchies  and  Despotisms  (Dill,  Roman  Society  from  Nero 
to  Marcus  Aurelius,  227). 

VIII.  Duration  of  Suggestion  (illustrations  in  Mott,  Evangel 
ization  of  the  World,  93,  88,  99,  100). 

IX.  Volume  of  Suggestion  (Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  93-94; 
Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  II,  chap,  lxxxv,  344  ff.,  348). 

REFERENCES. 
I.  The  Nature  of  Suggestion. — Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  65-88;  idem. 
Psychological  Interpretations,  164-90;  McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  96 
ff, ;  Ross,  Social  Control,  146-79;  Baldwin,  Mental  Development,  107,  chaps, 
vi,  ix-xii;  idem,  Handbook  of  Psychology,  II,  297;  idem,  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations,  236-44,  497,  527-36;  Sidis,  Psychology  Of  Suggestion; 
Loewenfeld,  HypnotismitS,  37;  and  the  other  works  above  cited.  For  more 
extended  reading-,  consult  Schmidkunz,  Psychologic  der  Suggestion; 
Ochorowicz,  De  la  suggestion  mentale;  Binet,  La  suggestibility;  Vigorous: 
and  Juquelier,  La  contagion  mentale;  Souriau.  La  suggestion  dans  I'art; 
Guyau,    Education    et    hcreditc;   Thomas,    La    suggestion,    son    role    dans 


SUGGESTIBILITY    AND    IMITATION.  L".l 

V&ducation;  Deahl,  Imitation  in  Education;  Lipmann,  Die  Wirkung  von 
Sugge8tivfragen;  Keatinge,  Suggestion  in  Ed  nation;  Giddings,  Descrip- 
tive and  Historical  Sociology,  L45-54,  L57-60,  319-22;  Baldwin,  "Imitation: 
A  Chapter  in  the  .Natural  History  of  Consciousness,"  in  Fragments,  168- 
209;  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  30  ff.,  'x:  ff.,  LOO  tr. 

II.  Hypnotism.  Jastrow,  Fact  and  Fable  in  Psychology,  L73  ff.;  Moll, 
Hypnotism;  Bernheim,  Suggestive  Therapeutics;  Wundt,  Hypnotismus  and 
Suggestion;  Binel  and  F6r6,  Animal  Magnetism;  Lij>|i>.  Suggestion  una 
Hypnose;  Loewenfeld,  Hypnotismus;  ami  tin-  article  of  Titchener,  above 
cited. 

Section  VIII.     Mob  .Mind. 

.1.     Definitions  of  Croud  and   Mob. 

I.  Characteristics  of  the  Crowd  (Ross.  Foundations,  LOO  ff. ; 
idem,  Social  Psychology,  chap.  ii.  Compare  Le  Bon,  The 
Crowd,  25-38,  passim;  and  Tarde,  Uopwion  et  hi  joule,  1   if.). 

1.  The  "crowd"  is  a   mass  or  agglomeration  of  individuals, 

either  animals  or  men;  and  the  ''mob"  is  but  one  of  its 
varieties  (see  examples  in  Ross.  Foundations,  101-102. 
Compare  Le  Bon,  25  ff.). 

2.  The  effect  of  agglomeration  or  bodily  contagion  is  to  in- 

crease the  effects  of  multiplied  suggestion :    is  the  feel- 
ing of  spiritual  activity  in  reality  a  "feeling  of  bodily 
activity''?    (James,  Principles  of  Psychology,  I.  :!(il  i  ; 
"intensity  of  personality  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the 
number  of  aggregated  men"  (Sidis.  Psychology  of  8 /in- 
gestion, 299  ff.     Compare  Ross,   Foundations,  103-105; 
and  Le  Bon,  39  ff.). 
'/.  The  suggestibility  of  the  crowd  is  indirect  and  the  dis- 
aggregation of  consciousness  unstable;   in  the  mob, 
suggestibility    is    direct    and    the    disaggregation    of 
consciousness    relatively    stable    (Sidis.    297-99.      Of. 
Ross,  op.  cit.,  101)  :    how,   then,  can  the  "mood"  of 
the  mob  be  tickle  and  unstable?     (Ross.  op.  cit.,  102  i. 

b.  Monotony,  inhibition,  and   expectancy   favorable  to  the 

genesis  of  the  crowd-mind  i  Sidis.  300-302.     Compare 
Le  Bon,  4(1  ff.). 

c.  The   criminal   crowd    is   not    necessarily   a    "'mob";    why 

men   more  than   animals   are  "demoralized"   by   the 
"anonymity"  of  numbers  t  Koss.  op.  cit..  L01-102,  121. 
Compare  Le  Bon,  63  ff . ;  and  in  general  on  criminal 
crowds,  Le  lion.  1S3-89:  Sighele.  La  foule  crim incite 
and  Tarde,  //opinion  et  la  foule.  L59  ff.). 


30  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

II.  Characteristics  of  the  Mob  (Ross,  Foundations,  102-103.  104 
ff. ;  idem,  Social  Psychology,  chap.  ii.  Compare  Tarde  and  Le 
Bon). 

1.  Ross's  definition :    a  mob,  for  the  purposes  of  social  psy- 

chology, is  a  "crowd  of  people  showing  an  unanimity 
due  to  mental  contagion" ;  its  one-mindedness  is  due  to 
suggestion-imitation;  are  there  other  mob-traits  not  due 
to  suggestion?     (Foundations,  102-103). 

2.  The  process  of  suggestion  in  the  mob. 

«.  Feeling  acts  more  swiftly  than  ideas;  the  fanatical  and 
impassioned  are  least  affected   (Ross,  120-21). 

6.  Association  in  a  crowd  renders  every  psychic  mani- 
festation more  intense  (Ross.  Foundations,  121-27)  : 
but  both  the  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the 
crowd,  in  general,  is  lower  than  that  of  its  members 
(compare  Le  Bon,  34-38,  39-6G). 

c.  Place  and  function  of  the  crowd  (mob)  leader;  role  of 
fascination  and  prestige  (Ross,  Foundations,  104- 
105,  126;  Sidis,  297-98,  315-21;  Le  Bon,  The  Crowd, 
133-59). 

ff*.  The  formation  of  a  mob  takes  time:  three  results  of 
the  transmission  of  an  emotion  (Ross,  Foundations, 
104-105;  idem,  Social  Psychology,  47-49). 

1)  Extension:    communication  to  others  by   contagion 

(examples  in  Sidis,  305;  Ellis,  Man  and  Woman. 
382). 

2)  Intension:    feeling  of  each  individual  increased  by 

perception   of  the   feeling  of   all    (Sidis,   303-304, 
378-79). 

3)  Predisposition:    unison  begets  further  unison. 

3.  The  unlimited  domination  or  mastery  of  the  individual 

selves  by  the  crowd-self;  the  volume  of  suggestion;  ex- 
amples. 

ff.  The  Kentucky  revival,  1799-1800  (McMaster,  History, 
II,  578-82;'  Sidis,  350  ff.;  Yandell,  "Epidemic  Con- 
vulsions," in  Brain,  Oct.  1881). 

6.  The  "Great  American  Revival,"  1832  (Sidis,  353  56; 
Rhodes,  in  Appleton's  Journal,  Dec.  11,  1875). 

c.  Psychic  phenomena  in  such  religious  assemblies  (Coe, 
The  Spiritual  Life,  141-50;  Starbuck,  "A  Study  of 
Conversions,"  in  Am.  Journal  of  Psychology,  VIII, 


SUGGESTIBILITY    AM»    IMITATION.  ill 

268  ff. ;  idem,  "Some  Aspects  of  Religious  Growth," 
in  ibid,  IX,  To  11'.;  idem.  Psychology  of  Religion; 
Deuba,  "Psychology  <•('  Religions  Phenomena,"  in 
Am.  Journal  of  Psychology,  VII,  309  ff.). 

REFERENCES. 
Koss,  Foundations,  100-48;  idem,  Social  Psychology,  chap,  ii;  Le  Bon, 
The  Crowd,  13-175;  Bidis,  Psychology  of  Suggestion,  297  ff.;  Sighele,  La 
foule  criminellej  Coe,  The  Spiritual  Life,  128-50,  passim;  Tarde,  V opinion 

et  la  foule,  1  If.;  the  works  of  Starbuck.  James,  Rhodes,  McMaster,  Yandell, 
and  Ellis  above  cited.  For  further  reading,  consult  Trotter,  "Sociological 
Application  of  the  Psychology  of  Herd  Instinct."  in  Sociological  Bevii  MO, 
I,    227-48,   II,    30-54 ;   Coe,   "The   .Mystical  as  a   Psychological    Concept,"    in 

Journal  of  Philosophy,  Psychology,  and  Scientific  Methods,  vi.  ior-202; 
Lourie,  Oroyance  religieuse  et  croyance  intellectuelle  (Paris,  1908); 
Hayes,  "An  Historical  Study  of  the  Edwardean  Revivals,"  in  American 
Journal  Of  Psychology,  Kill,  550-74;  Davenport,  ".Mental  Traits  of  a 
Psychological  'Crowd,'"  in  Primitive  Traits,  25-31;  Lee,  "The  Dominance 
of  the  Crowd,"  in  Atlantic,  LXXXVI,  754-61;  idem,  "Making  the  Crowd 
Beautiful."  in  Atlantic,  I. XXXVII,  240-53;  Sidis,  "A  Study  of  the  Mob," 
in  Atlantic,  LXXV,  188-97  ;  idem,  ".Mental  Epidemics,"  in  Century,  LII,  849- 
53;  Koss,  "Mob  Mind."  in  Pop.  Sc.  Monthly,  LI,  390-98;  "La  psicologia  della 
folia,"  in  Bivista  Ital.  di.  Hoc.,  Ill   (1899),  166-95. 

Consult  especially  the   very  enlightening  investigation   by   Samuel  W. 
Dike,  "A  Study  of  New  England  Revivals,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  XV   (1909),  361-78. 

Section  IX.     Mob  Mind,  Continued. 

B.  Mob  Characteristics  Without  "Presence"  or  Bodily  Con- 
tagion (Ross,  Foundations,  106-15;  idem,  Social  Psychology, 
chap,  iii;  compare  Davis,  Gabriel  Tarde,  83-88;  and  Tarde. 
L'opinion  et  la  Foule). 

I.  The  City. 

1.  Why    subject   to   the   evils   of   mental    contagion    ( Ross, 

Foundations,  106-107;  Jones,  Economic  Crises,  204-205). 

2.  Influences  counteracting  mob-tendencies  in  cities:    effect 

of ''mental  heterogeneity"  (Giddings,  in  Forum,  XXXV. 
251-52 ) . 

II.  The  Public:  Why  it  may  develop  Mob-Mind  (Ross,  Founda- 
tions, 107-109,  133-35;  idem,  Social  Psychology,  63  ff . ;  Tarde, 
L'Opinion  et  la  foule,  1-02  ;  ours  an  era  of  publics  not  of 
crowds  (Ross,  134-35.  Contrary  view  of  Le  Bon,  15-23i:  the 
electorate  and  the  referendum  (see  Le  Bon,  201  ff.). 

III.  The  Craze. 

1.  Definition  and  characteristics  (Ross.  Foundations,  109-10; 
idem,  Social  Psychology,  65  ff.)  :  orientation  by  some 
event  or  incident. 


32  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

2.  Examples. 

a.  The  "Miller  Mania,"  1840;  other  cases  (Sidis,  356-62). 

b.  Mediaeval  mental  epidemics:   Children's  crusade,  Flage- 

lants,  dancing  mania,  tarantism,  etc.  (Sidis,  318-30. 
See  Creighton,  Epidemics  in  Britain,  2  vols.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1891-1894;  Hecker,  Epidemics  of  the  Middle 
Ages;  Ireland,  "The  Psychology  of  the  Crusades,"  in 
Journal  of  Mental  Science,  LII,  745-55,  LIII,  322-41). 

c.  Witchcraft  epidemics  or  demonophobia   (Sidis,  331-42;. 

Upham,  Salem  Witchcraft;  Kingsley,  in  Nebraska 
Hist.  Society,  Transactions,  III,  44-68;  Hildreth, 
Hist,  of  U.  S.,  II,  144  ff. ;  Doyle,  English  Colonies, 
III,  298  ff.). 

d.  Financial   crazes    (Sidis,  343-49)  :    Mississippi  Bubble^ 

South  Sea  Bubble. 

e.  Harnack's  ten  tokens  of  the  "Spirit  and  of  Power"  in 

the  primative  Christian  Church  (Expansion  of 
Christianity,  I,  251-52). 

1)  First  cause:    the  subconscious. 

2)  Second  cause:    the  social  environment   (Harnack,  1, 

254-56). 

f.  The  "Great  Fear"  in  France,  1789    (Stephens,  French 

Revolution,  I,  178-79). 

g.  Spread  of  the  war-spirit,  1861. 

1)  In  the  North   (Nicolay  and  Hay,  Abraham  Lincoln, 

IV,  85-87). 

2)  In  the  South. 

3.  Ross's  Law  of  crazes. 

ff.  "The  craze  takes  time  to  develop  to  its  height."  Ex- 
ample: the  panic  of  April  to  August,  1893;  its 
psychic  phenomena  developed,  1894-1896. 

b.  "The  more  extensive  its  ravages,  the  stronger  the  type 

of  intellect  that  falls  a  prey  to  it"  (see  Sidis,  352, 
327-29). 

c.  "The  greater  its  height,  the  more  absurd  the  proposi- 

tions that  will  be  believed  or  the  actions  that  will  be 
done." 

d.  "The  higher  the  craze,  the  sharper  the  reaction  from  it." 

e.  "One  craze  is  frequently  succeeded  by  another  exciting 

emotions  of  a  different  character"  (examples  in 
Jones,  Economic  Crises,  209-10). 


SUGGESTIBILITY   AND    [MITATION.  33 

/.  "A  dynamic  society  is  more  craze-ridden  than  one  mov- 
ing along  the  ruts  of  custom'*;  examples:  American 
susceptibility;  rise  of  quacks,  such  as  Cagliostro,  in 
times  of  scientific  awakening;  theosophy,  divine 
healing,  second  Elijahs,  fortune  telling,  etc.,  in  the 
20th  century. 

g.  "Ethnic  or  mental  homogeneity  is  favorable  to  the 
craze"  (see  Giddings,  in  Forum,  XXXV,  251-52, 
quoted  above  on  "city"). 

IV.  The  Fad  (Ross,  Foundations,  111-15;  idem,  Social  Psychol- 
ogy, 65,  80-81). 

1.  Depends  mainly  on  the  prestige  of  the  novel,  not  on  the 

volume  of  suggestion. 
-.  Its  place  in  progress. 

V.  The  Sect  (Ross,  Foundations,  135-38.  See  Sighele,  Psychol 
ogie  des  scctes). 

VI.  The  Corporate  Organization  (Ross,  Foundations,  138-47. 
Cf.  Maitland,  in  Gierke's  Political  Theories  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
p.  xxvii,  on  English  group-life). 

C.  Forms  of  Assembly  or  Agglomeration  "With  Presence" 
Which  are  Differentiated  from  the  Crowd  and  the  Mob 
(Ross,  Foundations,  116-48,  on  "Properties  of  Group-Units" ; 
Tarde,  I/Opinion  et  la  foulc;  Le  Bon,  The  Crowd,  177  ff.), 

I.  Principles. 

1.  Is  the  character  of  the  crowd  lower  than  that  of  its  mem- 

bers? (see  Cooley,  Social  Organization,  149-56;  Sighele, 
La  foulc  crimineUej  MeDougall,  Social  Psychology,  82- 
88). 

2.  Is  the  whole  (the  crowd)  a  sum  of  its  parts? 

3.  Difference  in   the  moral  and  intellectual    level   of  homo- 

geneous and  heterogeneous  crowds? 

4.  Do  crowds  ever  socialize?    (Ross,  Foundations,  127). 

II.  Forms  of  Assembly  in  Question  (Ross,  128  ff.). 

1.  The  mass  meeting. 

2.  The  deliberative  assembly  {cf.  Le  Bon,  i!l  i  ff.,  on  "Parlia- 

mentary  Assemblies" 
a.  Leadership. 
3 


34  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

6.  Examples  of  these  meetings. 
c.  Value  of  parliamentary  rules  of  order. 
3.  The  representative  assembly. 

III.  Le  Bon's  Classification  of  Crowds  {The  Crowd,  177-82). 

1.  Heterogeneous  crowds. 

a.  Anonymous. 

b.  Not  anonymous. 

2.  Homogeneous  crowds. 

a.  Sects. 

b.  Castes. 

c.  Classes. 

Section  X.    Remedies  and  Preventives  of  Mob  Mind. 

I.  The  Function  of  Education. 

1.  Education  in  general;  the  dangers  of  little  knowledge. 

2.  Higher  education. 

a.  Value  of  the   trained   critical   judgment  as   compared 

with  the  more  receptive  power  which  a  limited  edu- 
cation may  afford. 

b.  Relative  need  of  state  support  of  higher  as  compared 

with  lower  education. 

c.  The  triple  safeguard :   the  studies  most  essential  to  the 

development  of  robust  individuality. 

1)  Hygiene:   value  of  physiology  and  physical  training. 

2)  Psychology. 

3)  Sociology,  including  history  and  economics. 

d.  Familiarity  with  the  masters  of  prose  and  verse. 

1)  Value  of  "conservative  boldness." 

2)  Value  of  the  time-tested  or  universal  as  compared 

with  the  novel,  sensational,  and  ephemeral. 

3.  Function  of  the  true  teacher. 

a.  Intellectually:    value  of  right  method  in  developing  in- 

dividuality. 

b.  Ethically :    value  of  relative  or  historical  ethics. 

c.  Dangers  which  threaten  to  lower  the  quality  of  teach- 

ing in  America. 

1)  Social  ignorance  of  "specialists." 

2)  Lack  of  humanism. 

3)  Cynicism. 

4)  Lack  of  zeal  and  idealism. 

5)  Lack  of  right  method. 


SUGGESTIBILITY    AND    IMITATION.  35 

4.  Boss's  pathology  of  "paragraphesis/ 

a.  Evils  of  the  "yellow"  newspaper. 

b.  The  ideal  newspaper;  can  it  be  realized?    must  it  be 

endowed  ? 

c.  The  magazine;  its  uses  and  abuses. 

d.  The  modern  novel;  its  uses  and  abuses. 

I I .  The  Function  of  Environment. 

1.  Country  life;  its  advantages  and  disadvantages;  is  Emer- 

son's teaching  sound   (essay  on  "Self  Reliance")? 

2.  City   life;  advantages  and  disadvantages;   what  reforms 

will  promote  individuality  and   lessen   the  dangers  of 
mental  contagion? 

III.  The  Function  of  Institutions. 

1.  Property   (cf.  McDougall,  Social  Psychology,  322-24). 

a.  Danger  of  over-emphasizing  its  relative  social  value; 

the  18th  century  teaching. 

b.  Should   private   property   be   more  widely   diffused    in 

order  to  secure  conservatism  and  stability? 

c.  Should  collective  ownership  be  extended  to  secure  the 

same  ends? 

2.  The  family. 

a.  The  coercive  family. 

6.  The  family  resting  on  persuasion ;  how  threatened  by 

the  present  industrial  system? 
c.  How  may  the  family  be  preserved  as  a  true  conservative 

force  in  the  process  of  advancing  socialization?    i 

3.  Voluntary  associations. 
a.  Industrial. 

6.  Social. 

c.  Religious  and  ethical. 

1)  Value  of  right  ideals. 

2)  Knowledge  the  basis  of  sound  morality:    the  trained 

mind  is  the  best  keeper  of  a  clear  conscience;  self- 
respect  is  the  basis  of  right  action;  danger  of  con- 
sanguine or  family  selfishness. 

3)  Vital   religion;  says  Ross.  "Let    us  avoid   yellow   re- 

ligion as  well  as  yellow  journalism"  (see  illustra- 
tions in  Coe,  Spiritual  Life,  215-17;  Taine,  Regime 
Modeme,  II,  144-40). 

In  part  this  section  is  treated  by  Ross,  Social  Psycholgy,  83  ff. 


36  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

Section  XI.    Fashion. 

I.  What  is  Fashion? 

1.  Ross's   definition:    "Fashion    is    a    series    of    recurring 

changes   in  the   choices   of  a  group    of   people  which 
though  they  may  be  accompanied  by   utility,  are  not 
determined    by    it."      Differentiation    of    fashion    from 
progress : 
a.  Fashion  is  characterized  by  the  processes  of  "Imitation 

and  innovation,  by  alternate  uniformity  and  change," 

but  neither  is  primarily  due  to  the  desire  for  the 

useful. 
&.  Progress  is  change  for  the  better,  and  it  never  moves 

in  a  circle  as  does  fashion. 

2.  Psychology  of  style:    it  is  a  uniformity  due  to 
a.  Agreement  of  belief  or  feeling. 

6.  Domination  of  the  individual  by  the  mass:  to  the  de- 
sire to  be  "stylish"  or  to  avoid  being  conspicuous; 
but  without  approval;  is  this  influence  psychic? 

c.  Veblen's  analysis  of  the  attractiveness  of  style  (Theory 
of  the  Leisure  Class,  111,  131.  Cf.  Tarde,  Laws  of 
Imitation,  164). 

1)  Because  novel  and  so  a  release  from  the  restraint  of 

the  old. 

2)  Because  reputable;  why  style  is  arbitrary  and  trans- 

ient? 

3)  Is  it  due  partly  to  its  conformity  to  the  prevailing 

standards  of  the  beautiful? 

3.  Tarde's  theory  of  imitation  as  applied  to  fashion  (Laws 

of  Imitation,  chaps,  vi,  vii,  especially  pp.  164,  199,  212, 
213  ff.). 
a.  His  three  laws  of  imitation,  and  the  examples  cited. 
6.  The  alternation  of  epochs   of  fashion  with   epochs  of 

custom  (see  especially  chap.  vii). 
c.  Validity  of  the  illustrations  given   by  him    (critically 
examine  them  as  cited  in  the  Index  at  "Fashion"). 

II.  Resulting  Theory  of  Fashion :    It  is  due  to  a  Passion  for 
Self  Distinction  or  Self-Individualization. 

1.  Fondness   for  ornamentation  on  the  part  of  barbarians 

and  savages. 

2.  Theory  of  the  "trophy"  as  a  mark  of  personal  prestige. 


SUGGESTIBILITY    AND    IMITATION'.  ."IT 

:;.  Rise  of  artificial  embellishment. 
a.  Attached  l<>  the  person. 
I).  Attached  to  i  h< •  dress. 

».  Why  use  of  ornaments  survives  in  civilization. 

a.  By  women  as  compared  with  men. 

b.  By  courtiers,  military  officers,  etc. 

5.  The    passion    for    inequality    in    America    (Brooks,    The 

social  Unrest,  233-36). 

a.  Explains  some  failures  of  communistic  experiments. 

b.  Craze  for  genealogy  and  heraldry. 

c.  "Colonial   Dames,"  "Daughters  of  the  Revolution,"  and 

like  societies. 
(I.  Titles  prevalent  among  fraternal  orders. 

6.  The  interaction  of  imitation  and  differentiation  of  fashion 

in  society  (compare  Bryce,  Am.  Commonwealth,  II, 
chap,  cix,  744-5G). 

a.  Imitation  of  the  fashion  of  the  superior  to  gain  prestige. 

b.  Differentiation  of  new  fashions  by  the  superior  to  pre- 

serve prestige. 
c:  Cases  of  differentiation  of  the  fashions  of  the  superior 
and  the  inferior  by  law   (Hearn,  Japan:    An   Inter- 
pretation, 182-86).* 

7.  The  stability  and  mobility  of  fashion. 

a.  Stability  in  caste  societies  (Veblen,  Leisure  Class.  L75). 

b.  In  feudal  society  prestige  is  gained  by  abstention  from 

productive  wrork  not  from  "conspicuous  waste." 

c.  In  modern  society  the  reverse  is  the  case;  hence  fashion 

is  becoming  less  and  less  stable ;  and  this  tendency 
is  enhanced  by  the  facility  of  cheap  imitations  af- 
forded by  modern  technique  and  inventions  (Som- 
bart,  Das  moderne  Kapitalismus,  II.  343  IV. ;  Moss, 
in  Atlantic,  XCIV,  2G5). 

8.  Hence    the    resulting   characteristics    of    modern    as    dis- 

tinguished from  earlier  fashion  are: 

a.  The  vastly  greater  number  of  things  comprehended. 

b.  The  extent  to  which  uniformity  prevails. 
C.  The  swiftness  of  change. 

9.  Theory  that   clothes  and  personal  ornamentation   in  gen- 

eral originate  in  the  motive  of  sex-attraction  iWester- 
marck,  Human  Marriage,  240-77 ;  Howard.  Matrimonial 
Institutions,  I.  203-208,  and  the  authorities  there  cited). 


38  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

III.  Reform:    Influences  Tending  to  Break  the  Domination  of 
Fashion. 

1.  Education ;  increasing  number  of  persons  of  independent 

judgment  who  refuse  to  conform  to  style  without  ap- 
proval :    new  measure  of  personal  and  social  worth. 

2.  Reform  associations. 

3.  The  new  position  of  woman. 

a.  Competition  with  men  in  new  callings. 

b.  New  athletic  and  other  recreations  and  the  modifica- 

tions of  costume. 

c.  Effect  of  democracy  on  the  dress  of  men,  and  woman's 

advantage  therefrom  (Agnes  Repplier). 

REFERENCES. 
Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  chaps,  vi,  vii,  especially  164,  199  ff.,  212, 
213  ff.,  334,  n.  2,  293.  notes  1  and  2,  and  Index  at  "Fashion" ;  Ross 
Foundations,  36-37,  347 ;  idem,  Social  Control,  180-95 ;  idem,  Social 
Psychology,  94-109;  Cooley,  Social  Organization,  336-41;  the  works  of 
Brooks,  Bryce,  Veblen,  Hearn,  Sombart,  Moss,  above  cited.  Read  also 
Thomas,  "The  Psychology  of  Woman's  Dress,"  in  American  Magazine, 
LXVII,  66-72;  Veblen.  "The  Economic  Theory  of  Woman's  Dress."  in 
Pop.  Sc.  Monthly,  XL  VI  (1894),  198-205;  Simmel,  "Fashion,"  in  Interna- 
tional Quarterly,  X  (1904),  130-55;  Sumner,  Folkways,  184  ff.,  and  Index; 
Spencer,  in  Principles  of  Sociology,  II.  Part  IV,  chap,  xi,  210-1 5 :  idem, 
"Manners  and  Fashion,"  in  Essays,  III,  1-51  ;  Shaler.  "The  Law  of 
Fashion,"  in  Atlantic,  LXI  (1888),  386-98;  Linton.  "The  Tyranny  of 
Fashion,"  in  Forum,  III  (1887),  59-68;  Bigg-.  "What  is  Fashion?*'  in 
Nineteenth  Century,  XXXIII  (1893),  235-48;  Foley,  "Fashion,"  in 
Economic  Journal,  III  (1893),  458-74. 

Section  XII.    Conventionality. 

I.  What  is  Conventionality?    (Ross,  Social  Psychology,  110  ff. 
Cf.   Cooley,  Social  Organization,  335  ff . ;   Sumner,  Folkways, 
Index  at  ''Conventions,"  '-Conventionalization"). 
1.  Ross's  definition :   "A  psychic  plane  laid  across  society  by 
the  deliberate,  non-competitive,   non-rational   imitation 
of  contemporaries.     The  qualifying  terms  differentiate 
it  respectively  from  mob-mind,  fashion,  rational  imita- 
tion, and  custom." 

a.  In  life  it  is  far  more  stable  and  controlling  than  is 

fashion  or  mob-mind. 

b.  Often  it  determines  our  beliefs,  world  views,  and  ideals, 

though  we  scarcely  know  why  (James,  The  Will  To 
Believe,  9;  Balfour,  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt, 
260-76,  154  ff.). 


SUGGESTIBILITY   AND    IMITATION.  39 

2.  Examples  of  beliefs  determined  by  mere  conventioD  and 

not  by  reason. 

a.  "That  manual  labor  is  degrading"  (Addams,  Democracy 
and  Social  Ethics,  L95-96)  :  why  this  illusion  obtains 
among  workers  as  well  as  the  leisure  class? 

h.  "That  civic  worth  is  measured  by  pecuniary  succee 

In  fixing  conventional  social  values  "money  talks" 
(Addams,  257-58,  L94)  :  what  would  be  a  rational 
standard  of  worth  for  the  masses?  For  the  cultured 
minority? 

c.  "That  pecuniary  success  is  the  only  success"  (Ross,  "The 

Near  Future  of  American  Society,"  in  The  Independ- 
ent, .May  23,   L905;  Addams,  24-25). 

d.  "That  conservatism   is  good  form,  whereas  radicalism 

is  vulgar"  (Veblen,  Theory  of  (lie  Leisure  Class,  L99- 
200). 
c.  "That  things  are  beautiful   in  proportion  as  they   are 
costly"  (Veblen,  155-56,  1G9). 

f.  "That  consumption  of  stimulants  or  narcotics  by  women 

is  unwomanly,"  even  unnatural  (Veblen,  71-72)  : 
patriarchalism  and  the  origin  of  man's  monopoly  of 
luxury. 

g.  "The  'spirit  of  the  age'  is  a  plane  established  by   imi- 

tation" (see  Chesterton.  Heretics,  302-303). 
h.  "That  one  keeps  a  day   holy  by   abstaining  from  pro- 
ductive    employment     and     personal     gratification" 
(Veblen,  309-10)  :  theory  of  vicarious  performance  of 
honorific  leisure. 

II.  Ross's  Laws  of  Conventionality — Imitation   (Social  Psychol 
ogy,  121  ft.). 

1.  "Mental  states  differ  in  ease  of  propagation." 

a.  Movements   of   the   body    readily    imitated    (see    Sidis. 

Psychology  of  Suggestion,  325  ff.,  on  tarantism, 
flagellation,  etc.;  and  compare  Fry,  "Imitation  as  a 
Factor  in  Human  Progress,"  in  Contemporary  Re- 
view, LV,  661). 

b.  Marching  rhythm  especially  infectious;   also  yawning. 

and  stammering  (Fry.  op.  cit.,  664):  the  French 
shrug;  accent  (Fry,  G63)  ;  language,  origin  of  words 
(Fry,  G68). 


40  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

c.  The  appetites   vary   in   infectiousness:    hunger,   thirst, 

sensuality  (see  Ross,  Social  Control,  156-62). 

d.  "The  feelings  are  more  contagious  than  the  appetites," 

probably  because  less  influenced  by  the  condition  of 
the  body  at  the  moment:  hope  and  terror,  laziness, 
ambition,  zeal,  courage  (Le  Bon,  141-42,  on  De  Les- 
seps)  ;  curiosity  (Tarde,  Imitation,  196-97;  The  In- 
dependent, LIV,  2930). 

e.  "Emotions  spread  more  rapidly  than  ideas" :    the  zeal 

of  Don  Quixote;  the  confession  of  the  Marechal  de 
Retz  (Fry,  op.  cit.,  674)  ;  "an  ideal  is  a  better  relig- 
ious nucleus  than  a  dogma"  (Chesterton,  Heretics, 
250-51)  ;  ideals  of  success  and  excellence  (Addams, 
254-56)  ;  hero-worship;  true  and  false  ideals  of  female 
beauty  of  form  (Veblen,  146-49;  Ripley,  Races  of 
Europe,  202)  ;  volition,  personal  ascendancy  (Ross, 
Social  Control,  279-80)  ;  obedience;  imitation  gives 
power  to  the  imitated. 

2.  "Imitation  proceeds  from  within  outward,  from  internals 

to  externals"  (Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  194  ff. ;  The 
Outlook,  LXXIV,  653-54,  on  American  influence  in 
Porto  Rico;  also  many  examples  in  Tarde,  chap,  vi)  ; 
the  explanation  of  "fossil"  customs  or  "survivals"  is  in 
part  explained  by  this  law;  the  psychology  of  envy 
(Tarde,  201,  202)  ;  that  of  love  and  fear.  From  this 
law  is  derived  No.  3. 

3.  "The   imitation   of   ideas   precedes   the  imitation   of   the 

arts  which  express  them." 

4.  "The  social  superior  is  imitated  by  the  social  inferior" 

(Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  213-21). 

a.  When  the  inferior  refuses  to  follow  (Addams,  3S-39, 
44-46). 

o.  When  the  social  inferior  is  imitated  by  the  superior. 

c.  When  there  is  reciprocal  influence  (Lummis,  The  Awak- 
ening of  a  Nation,  chap,  xlv,  entitled  "Borrowed  from 
the  Enemy";  Olive  Schreiner,  in  Cosmopolitan, 
XXIX,  601-602;  McMaster,  Life  of  Houston;  Eggles- 
ton,  The  Transit  of  Civilization,  233-36;  Fiske,  Old 
Virginia,  II,  253,  on  education  as  check  to  degrading 
influence  of  barbarism). 


SUGGESTIBILITY   AND    IMITATION.  41 

d.  When  the  influence  of  the  superior  repels  rather  than 

attracts  (Boutmy,  TJu  English  People,  L01-102; 
Bryce,  Transcaucasia  and  Annul,  L50;  Ross's  review 
of  Gurewitch,  in  Jour,  of  Pol.  limn.,  Sept.,  L907). 

e.  Prestige  of  rank  in  England   (Granl   Allen,  in  Cosmo- 

politan,  XXX.  659  II'.);  in  Borne  (Dill,  /'"man  Soci- 
ety from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelvus,  31-204). 

From  law  No.  4  in  principle  are  derived  laws  ~>  to  9  below. 

.').  'The  holder  of  power  is  imitated"  (see  an  example  in 
Taine,  Ancient  R4gwne,  43-46).  Why  nations  tend  to 
assimilate  through  the  reciprocal  Influence  of  aristoc- 
racies. 

<;.  "The  more  successful  is  imitated  by  the  less  successful." 
Prestige  of  the  aristocracies  of  brain  and  achievements. 
(Compare  Taine.  Ancient  Regime.  311-15;  Higginson,  in 
Atlantic,  XCIII,  510;  Cooley,  Human  Sal  arc  a  ad  the 
Social  Order,  309;  Miinsterberg,  The  Americans,  000- 
G02).  When  is  imitation  "unilateral*'  and  when  '"se- 
lective," "multilateral,"  or  "rational"? 

7.  "The  rich   are   imitated   by   the  poor"    (Pulitzer,   Public 

Opinion,  XXXVIII,  269;  Watterson,  Compromise  of 
Life,  461,  passim). 

8.  "The   city   is   imitated   by   the   country    (Tarde.    220,    on 

Paris;  Mahaffy,  Progress  of  Hellenism  in  Alexander's 
Empire.  122;  Taine,  Ancient  I'egime,  45-49;  Jastrow, 
in  Congress  of  Arts  and,  Science,  VII,  771-7:!  i. 

9.  "In  democracies  majorities  are  imitated"   (Bryce,  Amer- 

ican Commonwealth,  II.  chap,  lxxxv,  344  ff.,  348;  De 
Tocqueville,  II,  chap.  ii). 

a.  Role  of  the  elite  minority  in  a  true  democracy? 

b.  Imitation   of  the  social   superior  as  a  leveller   of   the 

latter's   prestige    (Tarde,   230-31;    Mahan,    Influence 
of  the  Sea  Power  upon  History,  332-33). 

Section  XIII.     Custom  and  Tradition. 

I.  What  are  Custom  and  Tradition?    (Ross,  Soci<il  Psychology, 
196  ff.). 

1.  Ross's  definition:  "Custom  and  tradition  consist  in  imi- 
tation of  ancestors  or  forerunners,  whereas  conven- 
tionality consists  in  the   imitation  of  contemporaries. 


42  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

The  one   is  down-imitation;   while   the  other  is   cross- 
iniitation.   Custom   is   transmission   of  way   of   doing; 
tradition  is  transmission  of  way  of  thinking,  believing, 
or   feeling''    (cf.    Cooley,   Social   Organization,   327   ff., 
335  ff.)- 
a.  Conventionality  and  "substitution." 
&.  Custom-tradition   and   acquisition.      Is   there   any    ele- 
ment of  choice  or  resistance  in  the  imitation  of  the 
child?      Is   there   a   trace   of   custom-    or   tradition- 
imitation  in  the  young  of  the  lower  animals?     Im- 
portance of  Fiske's  theory  of  the  results  of  the  long 
period  of  helplessness  of  human  childhood  (Outlines 
of  Cosmic  Philosophy,  II.  313  ff.). 

2.  Tarde's  law  of  the  alternation  of  ages  of  fashion  and 

ages  of  custom  (Laics  of  Imitation,  chap.  vii).     Mean- 
ing of  "custom"  and  "fashion"  as  used  by  Tarde? 

3.  Analogy  and   contrast  between  heredity   in   organic   life 

and  the  transmission  of  custom-tradition  in  social  life. 

a.  Variation  and  survival. 

b.  Stability  as  the  product  of  age  or  time   (illustrations 

in  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  141-43;  Jenks,  Law 
and  Politics  in  the  Middle  Ages,  56,  57)  :  influence  of 
the  "fear  of  nature." 

c.  How  custom  becomes  rigid,  or  an  "etiquette"  of  social 

life  is  established  (Tarde,  Laics  of  Imitation,  190-91; 
for  illustrations,  compare  Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civiliza- 
tion, 124-25). 

1)  In  politics  and  law:    our  dangers  from  the  worship 

of  precedent  and  the  written  constitution  (Hen- 
derson, in  A.  J.  S.,  XI,  847;  Smalley.  Railroad 
Rate  Control,  124). 

2)  Educational  fetiches  (Le  Bon,  Psychologie  du  social- 

ism e,  180,  note). 

3)  Other  illustrations  (Le  Bon.  op.  cit.,  206-208;  Spen- 

cer, Principles  of  Sociology,  II,  sec.  429;  Boutmy, 
The  English  People,  121;  Judson,  in  Shaler,  The 
U.  S.  of  America,  II,  311). 

d.  Contrasts  between  custom  and  heredity    ( Ross,  Social 

Control,  182-83;  MacGahan,  Campaigning  on  the 
Oxus,  50). 


SUGGESTIBILITY    AND    IMITATION.  43 

II.  Conditions  favoring  or  resisting  Custom-Imitation  (Boss, 
Social  Psychology,  217-53;  Jenks,  History  of  Politics,  41; 
Sheffield,  in  Forum,  XXIX,  594;   Kipling,  The  Five    Vationss 

49-50;  Eoznmi,  Ancestor  Worship  <ni<i  Japanese  Law;  I  learn, 
Aryan  Household;  Sharp,  "A  study  of  the  [nflnence  of  Cus- 
tom on  the  Moral  Judgment,"  in  University  of  Wisconsin, 
Bulletins,  No.  236). 

1.  Ancestor-worship. 

2.  Habit  or  ''self  imitation";  prestige  of  old   nun   in   static 

or  patriarchal  societies;  of  young  men  in  revolutionary. 
dynamic,  or  progressive  societies  (Henderson,  in  A.  J. 
S.,  XI.  siT;  Barnes,  "The  child  as  a  Social  Factor,"  in 
Studies  in  Education,  359). 

3.  Paternal  and  despotic  government:    hypertrophy  of  struc- 

ture. 

4.  Geographical    or   other    physical    isolation:     mountains, 

islands,  rural  districts;  effects  of  railways  and  other 
modern  means  of  communication  (Fox,  The  Kentuch- 
ions;  Malmil'y.  Progress  of  Hellenism  in  Alexander's 
Empire,  144-45). 

5.  Linguistic  isolation. 

0.  Social  isolation  (Leroy-Beaulieu,  Israel  among  the  Va- 
dons.  121-22,  chap,  vi,  sees.  1,  2;  Keller,  Homeric  Sod' 
ety,  290,  303,  on  effects  of  "guest-friendsHip"). 

7.  Home-life;  relative  conservatism  of  women  and  men. 

8.  Illiteracy   (see  Sheffield,  in   Forum,  XXIX.  593,  on  Chi- 

nese scholarship  and  on  its  traditions  among  the  un- 
educated). 

9.  School  education:    its  good  and  bad  effects  according  to 

the  subjects  studied  (see  Bryce,  studies  in  Hist,  and 
Jur.,  II,  231-33;  and  Sheffield,  above  cited). 

10.  Supremacy  of  ancient   sacred  books    (Bryce,  op.   cit.,  II, 

235;  and  the  writers  cited  in  9  above):  Maim,  Koran, 
Bible,  etc. 

11.  Freedom  of  discussion  ( Bagehot,  op.  cit.,  1G1-78)  :    breaks 

the  chains  of  custom  and  tradition. 

12.  Strong   group    or    race    feeling    (Leroy-Beaulieu,    Israel 

among  the  Nations,  303-304).  Why  the  United  States 
has  such  great  power  of  assimilating  mixed  races;  five 
reasons. 


44  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

13.  Sedentariness  in  one  environment;  effects  of  migration, 

colonization,  travel. 

14.  Lack    of   culture   contacts    (Bryce,   op.    cit.,   II,   235,    on 

Mohammedan  arrested  development;  Ward,  Pure  So- 
ciology, 235-36,  238;  Jenks,  History  of  Politics,  79;  Mor- 
ris, in  Pop.  Sc.  Monthly,  XLVII,  826-31,  all  on  broad- 
ening effects  of  war;  Simons,  in  Annals,  XVIII,  261-62; 
Buckle,  Civilization,  II,  121-22,  both  on  its  narrowing 
effect;  Sheffield,  in  Forum,  XXIX,  590,  on  effect  of 
geographical  isolation  on  Chinese). 

15.  Familism :     the    growing    desire   for   establishing   family 

traditions  in  America;  genealogy  hunters;  societies  of 
"daughters,"   "sons,"   "colonial"  ancestors,  etc.     • 

III.  The  Fields  of  Custom-Imitation;  Ross's  Laws  of  Variation 
(Social  Psychology,  254-74). 

1.  "A  survival  is  not  kicked  aside  until  it  gets  in  the  way." 

It  yields  to  the  necessities  of  new  scientific,  industrial, 
military,  or  other  methods ;  to  knowledge,  or  inventions, 
which  are  deemed  imperative;  but  it  holds  fast  when 
it  concerns  the  non-imperative. 

2.  "Custom  rules  in  the  less  accessible  fields." 

3.  "Collective  habits  are  more  stable  than  individual  habits" 

(Ferrero,  in  Pop.  Sci.  Monthly,  XLIII,  762-65,  on  sur- 
vival of  criminal  festivals;  Roberts,  Anthracite  Coal 
Communities,  54-55,  on  persistence  of  collective  prac- 
tices among  Slavs  in  America). 

4.  "Habits  of  consumption  are  more  stable  than  habits  of 

production"  (see  Fogg-Mead,  in  Jour,  of  Pol.  Econ.,  IX, 
228;  Weil,  in  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  Bulletins,  No.  38, 
p.  49;  House  Ex.  Docs.,  1884-85,  XXVI,  239;  Ross, 
Foundations,  381-83). 

5.  "Custom    is   powerful    in   the  fields   of   feeling"    (Bryce, 

Studies,  II,  32). 

6.  "Institutions  of  control — law,  government,  religion,  moral- 

ity, ceremony — are  fossiliferous"  (Ross,  Social  Control, 
190-94). 

IV.  Relation  of  Custom-Imitation  to  Conventionality-Imitation 
(Ross,  Social  Psychology,  275-84). 

1.  "There  is  a  contrast  of  societies  in  respect  to  the  relative 
power  of  custom  and  conventionality." 


SUGGESTIBILITY   AND    IMITATION.  l~> 

2.  "In  the  life-history  of  a  society  there  arc  alternating 
epochs  of  outlook  and  back-look,  of  'our  time'  and  'our 
country.'  " 

.:.  "In  times,  in  circles.  ;hm1  in  matters  where  custom- 
imitation  rules  new  things  try  to  appear  old"  (Jenks, 
History  of  Politics,  85-8G,  120;  .Maine,  Ancient  Law, 
25-2G,  on  English  and  Roman  Legal  Action;  Bnrke,  Re- 
flections on  the  French  Revolution,  36-40;  Tarde,  Laws 
of  Imitation,  361-63). 

4.  "In  times,  in  circles,  and  in  matters  where  conventional- 
ity dominates  the  old  tries  to  appear  new"  |  Fiske,  A 
Century  of  Science,  345-46). 

EEFERENCES. 

Giddings,  Principles,  74,  112,  and  Index  at  "Tradition";  Wundt,  Ethics, 
I,  chap,  iii ;  Hearn,  Aryan  Household,  chap,  on  "Law  and  Custom,"  and 
on  "Ancestor-Worship";  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations. 
chap,  ii ;  Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  chap,  vii ;  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  chap. 
v;  idem,  Popular  Government,  chap,  iii;  Leslie  Stephen,  Science  and 
Ethics;  Grant  Allen,  "Eomance  of  the  Race,"  in  Pop.  Sc.  Mont  lily,  LI  II. 
511;  Bagehot,  Physics  ami  Politics;  Leroy-Beanlim.  Israel  among  the 
A  at  ions,  chap,  vi ;  Fenton,  Early  Hebrew  Life;  Curr,  Australian  Race,  I 
54;  "Custom,"  in  Fort.  Rev.,  L,  136;  Tylor,  Anthropology,  409;  idem, 
Primitive  Culture;  Balfour,  Essays  ("Progress")  ;  Lyall,  Asiatic  Studies, 
20;  Lang,  Custom  and  Myth;  Lloyd  Morgan,  Habit  and  Instinct;  Sheffield, 
"Chinese  Civilization,"  in  Forum.  XXIX,  584-607;  Morris.  "War  as  a 
Factor  in  Civilization,"  in  Pop.  Sc.  Monthly,  XLYH,  823-34;  Ferrero, 
"Criminal  Festivals,"  in  Pop.  Sc.  Monthly.  XLI1I.  758-66;  Fogg-Mead, 
"Place  of  Advertising  in  Modern  Business,"  in  Jo-ur.  of  Pol.  Econ.,  IX. 
21S-42;  the  works  of  Le  Bon,  Bryce,  Fiske,  Burke,  Sharp,  Jenks,  Simons, 
Boss,  and   others  cited  above. 

Consult  further,  Howard,  Matrimonial  Institutions,  I,  chap,  iv ;  Mc- 
Doiigall.  social  Psychology,  102  ff . ;  Cooley,  Social  Organization,  335  ff . ; 
Davis,  Psychological  Interpretations,  143,  fE. ;  Darmesteter,  Selected  Es- 
says, 155-77  (race  and  tradition);  Bagehot.  Physics  and  Politics,  30  ff. 
(imitation  and  the  formation  of  national  character),  92  ff..  100  ff. 
(imitation);  and  especially  Sumner,  Folkways,  Index  at  "Custom," 
"Conventions,"  "Conventionalization." 


Section  XIV.     Rational   Imitation. 

What  is  Rational  Imitation?     (Ross,  Social  Psychology,  285 
95;  idem,  in  A.  J.  8.,  XIII,  1908,  721-28). 
1.  To  it  is  essential  the  freedom  of  the  mind  from  the  pres- 
tige of  suggestion-imitation  in  all  its  varieties.  The  con- 
sequences of  such  mental  emancipation  are: 
a.  Capacity  for  invention  or  origination. 
1)   Present  extent. 


46  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

2)   Relatively  may  it  be  increased? 
b.  Rational  imitation. 
2.  Characteristics  of  rational  imitation :    "conservative  rad- 
icalism." 

a.  Depends  not  on  prestige  but  on  the  perception  of  fit- 

ness, utility,  or  truth;  and  the  changes  wrought  by 
it  are  equivalent  to  progress. 

1)  Utility  and  material  progress. 

2)  Truth  and  intellectual  progress. 

3)  Moral  and  aesthetic  progress  in  part  dependent  on 

material  and  intellectual  progress;  example:  the 
humanization  of  punishment  (Ward,  Pure  Sociol- 
ogy, 453). 

b.  Admits  of  reliance  on  authority  when  based  on  "past 

success." 

II.  The  Special  Sphere  of  Rational  Imitation. 

1.  Industrial  arts ;  causes : 

a.  Competition. 

b.  Possibility  of  exact  measurement  or  determination  of 

relative  values.  Why  there  are  "schools"  in  the  fine 
arts  and  not  in  the  practical  arts. 

2.  Science;  causes: 

a.  Truths  of  science  attested  by  results  in  the  practical 

arts. 

b.  Its   laws   or  principles  are   verifiable   by   experiments 

(examples  in  White,  Warfare  of  Science,  I,  131,  note, 
221,  402-404).  Why  in  science  there  are  no  "schools" 
in  the  conventional  sense. 

III.  The  Growth  of  Rational  Imitation. 

1.  Extensive  growth:    role   of  education    (Tarde,   Laws  of 

Imitation,  62-63). 

2.  Intensive  growth;  how  exact  science  destroys  credulity, 

tradition,  and  superstition  (Tarde,  op.  cit.,  197  ff. ; 
White,  Warfore  of  Science,  I,  348-50,  II,  71-81,  87, 
106-10,  118-19).  How  science  is  transforming  the  prac- 
tical arts;  tenacity  of  superstitions  (see  Dresslar's 
experiments  in  "Superstition  and  Education,"  in  Uni- 
versity of  California,  Publications,  1907). 


CHAPTER    III. 

OPPOSITION   OK   COUNTER-IMITATION;    AND    OTHER    ASPECTS    OF 
SOCIAL    MIX  I)   AND   ETHICS. 


Section  XV.     Interference  and  Conflict    (Ross,  Social  Psy- 
chology, 29G-323). 

A.    Silent  Conflict. 

I.  Sometimes  a  Struggle  of  Prestiges. 

1.  In  an  hierarchical  or  stratified  society. 

2.  In  a  democratic  or  progressive  society :    exists  in  nearly 

every  phase  of  activity. 

II.  Sometimes  a  Struggle  of  Prestige  with  Merit. 

1.  Of  the  new  with  the  old;  of  modes  and  processes. 

2.  Of  beliefs  or  practices. 

III.  Sometimes  a  Struggle  of  Merit  with  Merit. 

IV.  Means  of  Deciding  Silent  Struggle. 

1.  Authority :    decision  by  the  many ;  by  the  autocrat ;  ex- 

ample of  Joseph  IPs  reforms. 

2.  Persecution:    effects  of  forcible  assimilation;  "psychology 

of  martyrdom." 

a.  Example  of  Russia. 

b.  White,  on  persecution  of  Roger  Bacon  (Warfare  of  Sci- 

ence, I,  390,  II,  90). 

3.  Example,  observation,  trial. 

D.     Vocal  Conflict  or  Discussion. 

I.  Tendency  of  the  various  Forms  of  Silent  Conflict  to  pass  into 
Discussion. 

II.  Tendency  of  the  Losing  Side  or  of  the  Antisocial  Forces  to 
Stifle  or  Pervert  Discussion;  and  of  the  Winning  or  Progress- 
ive Forces  to  Court  it :  for  Discussion  Hastens  the  Conclusion 
of  a  Struggle.    The  Rights  Preservative  of  all  Rights  arc: 

1.  Free  speech. 

2.  Free  press. 

3.  Free  assembly. 

(47) 


48  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

III.  Discussion  is  Favored  by  Modern  Facilities  of  Communica- 
tion (Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  on  "The  Age  of  Discus- 
sion"). 

1.  Growing  copiousness  of  discussion. 

2.  "Talk    is   the   great   changer   of   opinion"    (see     Godkin. 

Problems  of  Modern  Democracy,  221-24;  Ross,  op.  cit., 
310-11). 

IV.  The  Varying  Conditions  of  Effective  Discussion;  the  Need 
eof  a  Common  Basis  (Ross,  op.  cit.,  311  ff.). 

1.  Its  relative  sterility  in  fields  where  feeling  and  instinct 

dominate. 

2.  Its  relative  efficiency  in  fields  where  there  is  agreement 

as  to  ends. 

3.  Its   relative   failure   in   socially   isolated   groups    (U.   8. 

Bulletins  of  Labor,  No.  56,  Jan.,  1905,  1-8,  on  "Influence 
of  Trade  Unions  on  Immigrants")  ;  this  principle  acted 
on  in  Russian  and  German  attempts  at  assimilation 
(see  Simons,  Social  Assimilation;  America's  Race  Prob- 
lems, 115,  123-24,  128,  136-37,  on  assimilation  of  Ne- 
groes). 

4.  Examples  of  false  arguments  and  methods  in  social  and 

theological  discussion;  difference  between  discussion 
and  wrangling;  between  argument  and  vituperation. 

5.  Three  phases  of  conflict  in  discussion  resulting  from  the 

varying  relations  of  incompatible  beliefs  or  desires 
(White,  Warfare,  I,  122-23,  126-27,  134,  140,  155,  II, 
62;  Lecky,  European  Morals,  I,  343;  Tarde,  Logique 
sociale,  138-41). 

6.  Evolution  in  discussion  (Tarde,  Social  Laws,  125-32). 

V.  The  Results  of  Conflict  (Ross,  Social  Psychology,  324-29). 

1.  The  struggle  may  last  indefinitely. 

a.  When  "there  is  a  fundamental  or  inborn  difference  in 
men." 

6.  When  "the  struggle  is  between  an  illusion  and  a  para- 
dox." 

2.  The  struggle  may  terminate. 

a.  Because  one  side  is  silenced  or  convinced. 

b.  Because  a  middle  ground   is  found  upon  which  both 

parties  can  agree. 


OPPOSITION    OB    COUNTER-IMITATION.  49 

c.    lioeanse  specialization    lakes  j)lace. 

1)  In   silent    conflicts. 

2)  In   vocal  conflicts. 

REFERENCES. 

In  addition  to  the  authors  above  cited,   read  Tarde,  "The  Opposition  of 

Phenomena,"   in   his  Social  Laws,  68    IV.,    L25    IV.;    idem,   UOpposition    itui- 

verselle ;   Giddings,    Readings,    161,    162-69,    313-15;    idem,    Principles   of 

Sociology,  Index  at  "Conflict";  Cooley,  Social  Organization,  66  BE.  (growth 

of    co mnication)  ;    and    the    references    to    "Public    Opinion."    Section 

-Will,  below. 


Section   XVI.     Union   and  Accumulation    (Ross,   Social   Psy- 
chology, 330-37). 

I.  When  Accumulation  without  Conflict  and  resulting  Substitu- 
tion may  take  Place;  examples: 

1.  "No  struggle  between  new  and  old  can  occur  until  some 

progress  has  been  made." 

2.  "Early    religious   thinking   issued   in   myths   rather   than 

dogmas." 

3.  "Early   observations    on    natural     phenomena     dispelled 

darkness  rather  than  disproved  errors." 

II.  "Every  Fabric  of  Culture  has  Two  Sides,  one  extensible,  the 
other  not." 

1.  Rigid  and  plastic  sides  of  language. 

2.  Rigid  and  plastic  sides  of  religion. 

3.  Rigid  and  plastic  sides  of  science. 

4.  Rigid  and  plastic  sides  of  law. 

III.  Superiority  of  the  Non-Accumulable  Social  Products. 

1.  Hence  vast  importance  of  the  laws  of  conflict  and   sub- 

stitution. 

2.  "Advance  on  the  plastic  side  much   easier  than   on   the 
rigid  side." 


Section  XVII.     Compromise   (Ross,  Social  Psychology,  338-45). 

I.  The  Role  of  Compromise  ("Social  Armistice")  in  Social  Pro- 
cess (Small.  General  Sociology,  305  0'..  238,  287-88;  Ward, 
Dynamic  Sociology,  II,  108-19). 

1.  The  "tri-partite  organization  of  the  slate"   (Small,  300). 
4 


50  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

2.  Political  reasons  for  compromise. 

a.  Limited  or  special  interests  usually  unite  upon  "prin- 

ciples." 

b.  General  interests  tend  to  unite  upon  a  ''system." 

3.  " Subordinate  reasons  for  compromise." 

4.  The   interrelations   of   "faction"   and    "party" ;    influence 

of  the  Zeitgeist  (Small,  308-10). 

5.  Are  parties  necessary?    Meaning  in   this   regard   of  the 

"initiative  and  referendum"? 

II.  The  Field  of  Compromise. 

1.  Where  compromise  does  not  occur,  but  individual  choice 

determines. 

2.  Compromise  occurs   where   collective   choice    (action)    is 

necessary;  examples:  woman  suffrage;  "saloon  or  no 
saloon" ;  Australian  ballot ;  direct  primary ;  railway 
taxation,  etc. 

3.  Progress  by  compromise  or  "installment  of  truth." 

a.  The  legislator  or  statesman  as  "register  of  the  social 

will." 

b.  The  reformer  or  man  of  principle  as  the  mainspring  of 

progress. 

III.  Differentiation  of  Societies  as  to  the  Use  of  Compromise. 

1.  The  American  method :    tendency  to  maintain  party  as 

an  end  in  itself. 

2.  The  French  method:    tendency  to  sudden  and  complete 

change. 

3.  English    "reform    on   the    installment   plan"    (Macaulay, 

History,  III,  63-09,  on  the  "Toleration  Act";  Dicey, 
Law  and  Opinion  in  England,  356-58,  on  compromise 
in  ecclesiastical  legislation). 

a.  Its  merits. 

b.  Its  vices. 


Section  XVIII.     Public  or  Social  Opinion  (Ross.  Social  Psy- 
chology, 346-54). 

I.  Discussion  as  a  Process  of  Forming  Social  Opinion   (Bryce, 
American  Commonwealth,  II,  Part  IV.  247-362). 

1.  A  "campaign"  as  social  deliberation;  its  means  and  its 


OPPOSITION    OR    COUNTER-IMITATION.  5 1 

variety  of  discussion    (see  Tarde,  Lpwa  of  Imitation 
165). 

«.    Extenl   of  individual   irresolution,  and   the  r61e  of  per- 

suasion.  of  argument. 
b.  The  role  of  imitation  in  winning  social   allinity    (Mark 

Twain,  in  North  American    Review,  <LXXYI,   171- 

75). 

II.  Ross's  Theory  of  Public  Opinion  as  differentiated  from  Pre- 
ponderating Opinion. 

1.  Implies  the  "direction  of  social  attention  usually,  (hough 

not  necessarily,  in  view  of  some  collective  decision  or 
action." 

2.  At   its   final   stage  public   opinion   "always   exhibits    the 

hierarchical  structure'' ;  but  this  "hierarchy  of  influence 
need  not  be  identical  with  the  political  or  social  hier- 
archy, else  there  could  be  no  popular  movements." 

a.  Failure  of  universal  suffrage  in  England  to  destroy  def- 

erence to  classes. 

b.  Is  there  danger  of  a  dominance  of  opinion  by  a  class  in 

the  United  States? 

c.  Role  of  the  newspaper  as  an  "organ"  or  as  a  "mirror" 

of  public  opinion ;  value  of  "news"  reports. 
<1.  Role  of  the  newspaper  or  of  an  association  as  an  "ad- 
vocate." 

1)  On  the  question  which  constitutes  its  main  purpose. 

2)  On  related  or  subsidiary  questions. 

3.  How  settled  public  opinion  enters   into  social   tradition. 

custom,  and  structure. 

III.  Social  Opinion  and  the  Growth  of  Personality  :    McDougall's 
Theory  (Social  Psychology,  chaps,  vii-viii,  174-227). 

1.  "Moral  conduct  is  essentially  social  conduct"  (McDougall, 

op.  cit.,  174). 

2.  How  personality,  self-consciousness,  is  evolved  under  guid- 

ance of  the  "self-regarding"  sentiment. 

a.  The  early  development   is   mainly  under  control  of   in- 

stinct. 

b.  The  further  development    is   "wholly   a    social    process" 

(p.  183). 

1)  Positive  self-feeling. 

2)  Negative  self-feeling. 


52  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

3.  The  "limitations"  and  "drawbacks"  of  conduct  regulated 
by  "regard  for  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  our  fel- 
lownien"    (McDougall,  209-11). 
i.  The  evolution  of  social  idealism:   "how  some  men  advance 
to  a  plane  of  conduct  higher  than  that  regulated   by 
the   approval   and   disapproval   of  their  social    circle'' 
(McDougall,  211-27). 
a.  Value  of  the  "original  moral  judgments." 
6.  Value  of  the  "abstract  sentiments"  in  the  rise  of  the 
higher  conduct.     These  are  mainly  of  social  origin. 
"No  individual  can  make  a  conscience  for  himself. 
He  always  needs  a  society  to  make  it  for  him"   (T. 
H.  Green,  Prolegomena  to  Ethics,  351;   McDougall, 
218-21.     On  this  point,  see  Cooley,  Social  Organiza- 
tion, 413  ff. ;  and  the  brilliant  exposition  of  Ross, 
Sin  and  Society,  1907.     Cf.  Schroeder,  "Self-Esteem 
and  the  Love  of  Recognition  as  Sources  of  Conduct," 
in  International  Journal  of  Ethics,  XIX,  172-92). 

IV.  Cooley's  Theory  of  Public  Opinion  as  "Public  Consciousness" 
(Social  Organization,  10-12,  80-90,  108,  118,  121-48,  402-19;  and 
chap,  x,  "The  social  aspects  of'  conscience,"  in  Human  Nature 
and  the  Social  Order,  326  ff.). 

1.  "Public  opinion  is  no  mere  aggregate  of  separate  indi- 

vidual judgments,  but  an   organization,   a  cooperative 
product    of    communication    and    reciprocal    influence" 

(P-  121). 
a.  "A  group  'makes  up  its  mind'  in  very  much  the  same 

way  as  an  individual  makes  up  his." 
&.  But  "agreement"  is  not  essential ;  it  is  "representative," 

not  "average"  intelligence. 

c.  "The  expression  of  a  group  is  nearly  always  superior, 

for  the  purpose  in  hand,  to  the  average  capacity  of 
its  members"  (p.  124). 

d.  We  may  distinguish  "general"  public  opinion  and  "mul- 

tifarious   differentiations,"    or    social    opinions    of 
special  groups   (pp.  126  ff.). 

2.  What  the  masses  contribute  to  public  opinion   (pp.  135- 

48). 

3.  Government  as  public  will  (pp.  402-10). 

V.  Dis-equilibration :  Why  the  Social  Equilibrium  is  Disturbed 
and  the  Process  of   Social   Opinion — Tradition   must   be   Re- 


OPPOSITION    OE    COUNTER-IMITATION.  53 

pealed  (Tarde,  Z/0  logique  SOOiale,  L51-58;  K<»ss.  Foundations. 
L82-255,  od  "The  Factors  of  Social  Change,"  especially  207  11'.; 
and  his  Social  Psychology,  355-65). 

1.  New  culture-contacts. 

2.  Fundamental     changes     in     social     morphology     i 

Foundations,  L82-255  i . 

3.  New  inventions  and  initiatives;  laws  of  invention. 

1.  "Logic"  and  "utility"  in  social  change  or  evolution. 

5.   Does  the  ripening  of  the  social  mind  cramp  individuality? 

ElEFEEENCES. 

I'.<  sides  the  references  above  given,  see  Tarde,    UOpinion    el    la   foule, 
L-62;  Giddings,  Readings,  345;  idem,  Principles,  L32,  L38  ti'.,  L45-47;  idem, 

"The    Nature    and    Conduct    of     Democratic    Majorities,"     in    Political    Sc. 

Quarterly',  VII  (1892),  116  ff. ;  lloss,  Social  Control,  [ndex  at  "Public 
Opinion";  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  15G-204,  on  the  "age  of  discus- 
sion"; Bosanquet,  "The  Keality  of  the  General  Will,"  in  International 
Journal  of  Ethics,  IV  (1894),  308-32;  Jenks,  "The  Guidance  of  Public 
Opinion,"  in  .1.  •/.  8.,  I  (1895),  158-69;  Lloyd,  "The  Social  Will,"  in  A.  J. 
8.,  VII]  (1902),  336-59;  McConachie,  "The  Time  Element  in  Political  Cam- 
paign-." in  .1.  J.  8.,  V  (1899),  51-71;  Shepard,  "Public  Opinion,"  in  .1. 
.1.  8.,  KV  (1909),  32-60;  Ward,  ••The  Sociology  of  Political  Parties,"  in 
A.  J.  8.,  Kill  (190S),  439-54;  idem,  Dynamic  Sociology,  II,  chap,  sii, 
400-69,  547  ff . ;  Wilcox,  "The  American  Newspaper:  a  Study  in  Social 
Psychology,"  in  Annuls,  XVI  (1900),  177-8S ;  Yarrows,  "The  Press  and 
Public  Opinion,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  V  (1899),  372-S2  ;  Baldwin,  8odal  and  Ethical 
Interpretations,  184,  192,  320  ff.,  427  ff.,  512  ff. ;  Hayden,  The  Social  Will 

(1909). 


Section   XIX.     The   Psychology  of  Race-Prejuoice  and  the 
Problem  of  Potential  Race-Equality. 

I.  The  Popular  and  Traditional  Scientific  Doctrine  of  Superior 
and   Inferior  Paces. 

1.  Theological  belief  in  a  primative  curse. 

2.  Primative   ideals  born  of  social   struggle  and    ignorance: 

stranger  aud  enemy;  pagan  and  urban. 
.'!.  Scientific  doctrine  of  hereditary  race-types  and  qualities. 

4.  Maine's  doctrine  of  non-progressive  races   (Ancient   Law. 

chaps,  i,  ii). 

5.  Our   dominant    Buperstititions:     superiority    of   our    race 

and  of  our  generation  in  imbred  mental  and  physical 
powers. 

II.  The  Origin  and  Psychology  of  Race-Prejudice  and  the  Light 
which  they  throw  on  Pace  Values  (Thomas,  "Psychology  of 
Race-Prejudice,"  in  .1.  -/.  8.,  1X.  L904,  593-611). 


54  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

1.  Role  of  conflict;  rejection  of  unfavorable  stimuli;  how  a 
particular   environment    becomes    favored :     thus    race- 
prejudice  is  an  instinct  arising  in  the  tribal  state. 
a.  Race-prejudice  through  maternal  prejudice;  the  moth- 
er's obsession  in  favor  of  the  distinctive  marks  of  her 
child's  personality. 
6.  Race-prejudice  fostered  by  courtship  and  sexual  selec- 
tion ;  suggestion  and  symbols  of  beauty :    exaggera- 
tion of  sex-characters. 

c.  Role  of  race-standards  of  physical  beauty  thus  evolved. 

1)  Examples:    white  lady  and  rice-powder;  black  lady 

and  charcoal  and  fat;  other  illustrations. 

2)  Tribal  marks:  consciousness  of  kind;  group-solidar- 

ity increased  by  scarification,  tattooing,  mutila- 
tions, totemic  marks;  physical  features,  dress, 
speech,  social  habits;  the  flag  (Thomas,  op.  tit., 
599,  601). 

d.  Thus  race-prejudice  is  superficial;  it  depends  much  on 

habit,  the  usual,  looks,  color;  but  moral  standards 
are  similarly  evolved. 
6.  Hence   oriental   and    African    prejudice    against    white 
Europeans  (Thomas,  in  A.  J.  8.,  IX,  607-608;  ibid,, 
XII,  439-40). 

1)  Children,   mother,   dog,   and   chickens   frightened   at 

the  "men  in  bags"  (op.  tit.,  IX,  600). 

2)  Australian  woman  smokes  her  white  child. 

3)  Malabarese    make    their    gods    black,    their    devils 

white,    and    paint    their    saints    black    all     over 
(Waitz). 
f.  Race-prejudice  and  caste:    two  phases  of  the  ''instinct 
of  hate";  but  the  "status  of  caste  is  reached  as  the 
result    of    competitive    institutions"    (Thomas,   IX, 
609). 
2.  Hence   race-prejudice,    because   artificial,    is   easily    over- 
come, especially  when  not  the  result  of  caste  (Thomas, 
IX,  608,  passim), 
a.  Cases  of  Stanley  and  Livingston :    "ashamed  of  white 
skin"  which  seemed  like  "blanched  celery"  or  "white 
mice"   (Livingston)  ;  blushed  to  find  himself  wonder- 
ing at  his  countrymen's  paleness ;  could  not  help  feel- 
ing that  they  "were  sick"  (Stanley). 


OPPOSITION    <»K    COUNTER-IMITATION.  DO 

b.  Southern  white  child  and  black  "mammy." 

v.  Negro   loses   race-prejudice    (those    in    Sierra     Leone, 

1820). 
<l.  Southern  physical  horror  of  Chinese;  not  of  Negroes 
e.  Bu1   the  southerner  clings  to  Hit-  feeling  of  race-supe- 
riority, though  not  shrinking  physically:    Mary  Pres 
ton's  conception  of  Othello  (Thomas,   IX,  <;ii>). 
/.  Effect   of  prestige  on  our  feelings   for  the  Japanese; 

case  of  the  Chinese. 
g.   Efficiency    and    common   interest   overcome   race-preju- 
dice. 

1)  As  in  Austria-Hungary  under  the  new    constitution. 

2)  As  in  labor  unions. 

III.  Evidences  of  Potential  Race-equality  (Thomas.  "The  Mind 
of  Woman  and  the  Lower  Races,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  XII,  435-69;  or 
the  same  in  his  Sex  and  Society,  251-314). 

1.  Relative  brain-weight. 

a.  Average    European    brain    weighs   3    per   cent,    of   the 

body  or  1300  grams.     That  of  the  orangutan  is  £  of 
1  per  cent,  of  body  or  300  grams. 

b.  Brain  of  the  negro  is  45  grains  less,  that  of  Chinese  TO 

grains  more,  than  the  brain  of  the  average  European 
white. 

c.  Brain  of  woman  is  smaller,  finer,  but  larger  in  propor- 

tion to  body,  than  that  of  man. 
<l.  Ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern  cranial  capacity  about 

equal ;  evidence  of  the  Paris  cemeteries  for  the  period 

from   the  11th  to  the   18th  century;   comparison  of 

ancient  and  modern  Egyptians. 
e.   Individual  variation  in  the  same  stock  is  greater  than 

the  variation  between  races. 

1)  Among  whites,  the  variation  is  about  650  grams. 

2)  Gambetta's  brain  weighed   L160  grams;  TurgenieflPs 

2012  grams. 

2.  Relative  psychic  powers. 

a.  Perception   (Thomas.  XII,  441  ff.). 

b.  Memory:    of  Australian   and    Eskimo   is  equal    to   that 

of  the  "oldest   inhabitant"   among   the   whites;   that 
of  ancient  bard  and   modern   scientist:     Homer  anoj 
I  >ar\vin. 
C.   Inhibition   (Thomas.  XII.  442  ff.). 


56  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

1)  Our  proverb:    "Hungry  belly  has  no  ears." 

2)  Queensland  native's  mark  on  unripe  zamia  fruit  is  a 

police  safeguard. 

3)  Eskimo  will  starve  rather  than  eat  the  sacred  seal. 

4)  Blood-kinship    and    forbidden    degrees    in    marriage 

among  low  races. 

5)  Inhibition  of  the  Indian;  of  the  dog. 

6)  Meaning  of  the  alleged  evidence  of  lack  of  inhibi- 

tion; examples: 

a)  Fuigian  killed  child  who  dropped  fish. 

b)  Australian  does  not  throw  back  small  fish. 

c)  Civilized  Americans  waste  national  resources. 

d.  Abstraction. 

1)  What  is  abstraction :    how  the  power   depends   on 

degree  of  complexity  of  life;  on  practice. 

2)  African  proverbs:    proverbs  originate  with  the  peo- 

ple, not  the  educated  elite;  like  the  ballad  and 
slang  (see  examples  in  Thomas,  op.  cit.}  XII,  445- 
46;  taken  from  Ellis,  The  Yoruba- Speaking  People 
of  the  Slave  Coast  of  West  Africa,  218  ff.). 

e.  Other  illustrations. 

1)  Eelative  stimuli  of  death  and  separation    (Thomas, 

XII,  447-48). 

2)  Laws  of  Kafirs  and  those  of  Hebrews. 

/.  Eastern  ideals  conservative:   the  enthusiasm  for  change 

is  comparatively  rare  and  extremely  modern  (Maine, 

Pop.  Government,  132;  Thomas,  op.  cit.,  XII,  454). 

g.  Invention ;  relative  power  of  the  bow  and  of  the  air-gun ; 

Aztik  and  European  inventive  powers  compared. 

IV.  The  Resulting  Argument  for  the  Theory  of  Potential  Race 

Equality. 

1.  Race-prejudice  has  concealed  the  truth  and  led  to   the 

misrepresentation  or  the  ignoring  of  the  facts. 

2.  Present    race-inequality    in    civilization,    in    mental    and 

social  achievement,   is  due  mainly  to  institutions,  en- 
vironment, and  opportunity. 

a.  Proofs  from  the  awakening  of  Japan. 

b.  Proofs  from  the  awakening  of  China. 

c.  Significance  of  the  awakening  of  Turks,  Persians,  and 

Hindus. 


OPPOSITION    OB    COUNTER-IMITATION.  57 

d.   Is  the  black  race  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  potential 
race-equality? 
.'!.  We  have  not  understood  the  true  rdle  of  intellect  as  the 
directive  agent;  nor  of  knowledge  and  opportunity   as 
compared  with  that  of  heredity    (see  Section  XX,  be- 
low). 

4.  We  must  give  up  the  cherished  belief  in  a   few  chosen 

peoples,  nature's  elite,  to  whom  the  higher  functions  of 
civilization  have  been  especially  committed. 

5.  Rece-prejudice  is  the  most  hateful  and  the  most  harmful 

of  human  sentiments. 

'/.  It  has  incited  and  excused  cannibalism,  warfare,  and 
slavery. 

It.  It  has  justified  religious  persecution  and  economic  ex- 
ploitation. 

c.  It    has   fostered    tyranny,   cruelty,   and    the    merciless 

waste  of  human  life. 

d.  It  has  bred  the  spirit  of  caste;  and  it  has  done  most 

to  create  the  sweat-shop  and  the  slum. 

e.  It   is   the   archenemy   of   social    peace   throughout   the 

world. 

f.  From  Mississippi  to  China  and  the  Congo  everywhere  it 

is  a  sinister  factor  in  world  politics. 

g.  Only  through  its  removal  shall  we  ever  realize  the  vis- 

ion of  the  dreamer — the  brotherhood  of  man. 

REFERENCES. 

I.  Race  and  Heredity. — Jherin£\  Evolution  of  the  Aryan,  69-70,  148-49, 
passim;  Vacher  de  Lapouge,  ISAryen:  son  role  social  (1899);  Pearson, 
National  Life  and  Character,  chap,  i;  Lippert,  Kulturgeschichte,  I.  :;r  tT.. 
43  IV.  (active  and  passive  races)  ;  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  chap,  ii  (progres- 
sive and  non-progressive  races);  Darmesteter,  Selected  essays,  155-77; 
Reid,  Principles  of  Heredity,  2S9-300  (race  mental  trails  mainly  ac- 
quired. The  \  Lew  that  psychic  race-characteristics  are  chiefly  heredi- 
tary is  held  by  Michaelis,  Prinzipien  der  natiirlichen  und  sozialen  Ent- 
wicklungsgeschichte,  V.  57-S7;  and  by  Closson,  "Hierarchy  of  the  Euro- 
pean Races,"  in  .1.  •/.  S.,  Ill,  314-27.  With  these  compare  Bagehot, 
Physics  and  Politics,  07-70,  83-87;  Le  Bon.  The  Crowd,  43,  91-92;  Greef, 
in  1.  •/.  8.,  Vlir.  779-811;  Ripley,  Races' of  Europe;  Schultz,  Race  or 
Mongrel  (race-strength  depends  on  race-purity);  Gobineau,  Essai  swr 
Vinegualiti  des  nice*  humaines  (2  vols.,  1853-5). 

TT.  Potential  Race-Equality.  Ward.  Vpplied  Sociology,  95  ff.,  kit  BE., 
156  ff.,  236;  Ripley,  Races  of  Europe.  513-90;  Gulick,  Evolution  of  the 
Japanese,  21,  425-26,  and  throughout  the  book:  Buckley,  "The  Japanese 
as  Peers  of  Western  Peoples,"  in  I.  •/.  S.,  XI.  326-35;  Thomas.  "Province 
of  Social  Psychology,"  in  t.  •/.  8.,  X.  445-55;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of 
Arts  and  Science,  V,  363-68;   Idem,  "Psychology  of   Race    Prejudice,"  in 


58  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

A.  J.  S.,  IX,  593-611;  idem,  "The  Mind  of  Woman  and  the  Lower 
Races,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  XII,  435-69;  or  the  same  in  Sex  and  Society,  251-314; 
Barton,  Semitic  Origins,  1-29  (desires  influenced  by  environment  among 
the  Arabs)  ;  Reid,  as  above  cited;  Morse,  "The  Psychology  of  Prejudice," 
in  Tnterriat.  Jr.  of  Ethics,  XVII,  490-506;  Reinsch,  "The  Negro  Race  and 
European  Civilization,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  XI,  145-67  (accents  economic  causes)  ; 
Bryce,  "The  Relation  of  History  and  Geography-"  in  Contemporary  Re- 
view, XLIX,  426-43;  idem,  Studies  in  Hist,  and  Jurisprudence,  I,  308,  265- 
68 ;  Demolins,  Comment  la  route  crie  le  type;  Babington,  Fallacies  of 
Race  Theories  as  Applied  to  National  Characteristics  (1895)  ;  reviewed 
by  Cliffe-Leslie,  in  Fortnightly  Review,  XVI,  753;  Simons,  "Social  Assim- 
ilation," in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  VII;  Hill,  "Race  Progress  and  Race  Degen- 
eracy," in  Sociological  Review,  II,  140-51,  250-59. 

Consult  further  the  references  in  Howard,  General  Sociology:  An 
Analytical  Reference  Syllabus,  40-43  (on  evolution  of  desires),  43-46  (on 
environment  as  a  factor  in  social  phenomena),  48-50  (on  assimilation  by 
external  influences).  Section  XX,  below,  and  the  accompanying  citations 
bear   on   race-equality. 


Section  XX.     The  Role  of  Great  Men. 
A.    The  "Great  Man"  Interpretation  of  History. 

I.  Personality  and  leadership  in  Early  Society  (Ross,  Social 
Control,  275-90.  Consult  the  monograph  of  Mumford,  The 
Origins  of  Leadership). 

II.  Tarde's  Theory  of  Invention  and  Imitation  (Laws  of  Imita- 
tion, pp.  xiv-xv,  xviii-xix,  2-3,  92,  170-73,  343,  346-47). 

III.  Hero-Worship:   The  Doctrine  of  Carlyle;  Its  Fallacy. 

1.  Overlooks  the  indebtedness  of  the  great  man  to  his  en- 

vironment. 

2.  Ascribes  the  result  of  cumulative  progress  to  the  influence 

or  genius  of  one  man. 

IV.  The  Modern  Evolutional  Interpretation  of  History:  Great 
Men  are  the  Product  of  the  Forces  which  produce  the  Crisis 
or  Movement  in  which  they  Appear;  Who  is  the  "Social  Hero"? 

1.  Men  are  a  part  of  the  environment. 

2.  The  influence  of  heredity. 

3.  The  importance  of  opportunity. 

4.  Society  is  the  product  of  the  collective  work  of  all  its 

members. 

REFERENCES. 

Spencer,  Study  of  Sociology,  30-37;  Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,  Index; 
idem,  L'Oppoxition  universelle,  chap,  vii,  sec.  ii ;  Carlyle,  Heroes  and 
Hero-Worship;  James,   The  Will  to  Believe;  Lloyd,  The  Will  to  Doubt; 


OPPOSITION    OR    COtJNTEB-IMITATION.  59 

Mallock,  Aristocracy  <nni  Evolution;  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Inter- 
pretations, chap.  \;  Ross,  Social  Control,  275-90;  Aiugeolle,  Lea  problems 
d'histoire,  L35-85;  Granl  Allen.  "Nation  Making,"  in  Pop.  8d.  Monthly, 
Supplement,  Dec,  L878;  Bordean,  VHistoire  et  les  Mstoriens,  13-11O; 
Barth,  Die  Philosophic  der  Geschichte  als  Sociologie,  217-24.  Bee  also  the 
reference  a1   close  of  "B"  below. 

/;.    Potential  Genius  and  Democracy. 

I.  The  Revelation  of  Potential   Physical   Force  and  the  Conse 

quences  of  its  Liberation  and  Equipment. 

1.  Equipment  of  steam  power. 

2.  Equipment  of  electric  power. 

II.  The  Revelation  of  1'otential  Psychic  Force,  and  the  Probable 
Social  Consequence  of  its  Liberation  and  Equipment.  What, 
if  through  the  Disclosures  of  Statistical  Sociology,  ii  Should 
Pall  Ou1 

1.  That,  in  a  practical  sense,  genius  (talent,  ability)  is  made 

and  not  born;  that  "Genius  is  in  things''  and  not  in 
men  (Odin)? 

2.  That  there  are  no  ''inferior"  races  nor  "lower"  classes? 
.'!•  That  self-made  men  are  a  myth? 

4.  That  democracy,  triumphant  spiritually  as  well  as  politi- 

cally, shall  he  able  to  multiply  the  agents  of  civilization 
a  hundred-,  even  three  hundred-,  fold? 

III.  Galton's  Theory  of  Hereditary  Irrepressible  Genius. 
1.  Major  thesis:    Genius  is  inherited. 

L\  Minor  thesis:   genius  is  irrepressible. 

3.  First  corollary:    there  is  no  undisclosed  genius. 

1.  Second  corollary:  the  man  of  genius  is  the  exceptional 
man,  the  "glorious  sport  of  Nature''  (Huxley)  ;  hence 
social  achievement,  civilization,  is  the  work  of  a  \er\ 
few  agents,  of  a  few  inventors  1  in  Tardean  sense). 

5.  Third  corollary:    the  only   way   to   increase   the  quantitj 

of  genius  is  through   the  physiological  method:    by  im- 
proving the  breed  (through  the  science  of  Eugenics). 

IV.  Theory  of   Potential  Genius. 

1.  Major  thesis:  there  is  latent,  potential,  genius  which 
through  artificial  means  may  become  dynamic. 

-.   Minor    thesis:    affirms    the    intellectual    egalitarianism    of 
humanity    (see  especially  Thomas  as  below  cited). 
(i.  (Mass-equality  in  inherited  talent  or  genius. 


60  SOCIAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 

1).  Race-equality  in  inherited  talent  or  genius. 

c.  Physical  equality:    the  "democracy  of  birth-'  as  real  as 

the  democracy  of  death  (Spargo,  Bitter  Cry  of  the 

Children  \. 

3.  First  corollary:   knowledge,  equipment,  is  the  differential 

of  dynamic  talent  or  genius.     Illustrated   by   Ward's 

analysis: 
a.  Genius  (potential)  equals  intellect  plus  character. 
&.  Intelligence  equals  intellect    plus    knowledge    (equip- 
ment). 

c.  Ability  (dynamic  genius  or  talent)   equals  intelligence 

plus  character. 

d.  The  differential  therefore  is  knowledge  (equipment)  or 

opportunity. 

4.  Second  corollary:  the  most  practical  way  to  increase  the 

quantity  of  available  genius  is  through  the  sociol- 
ogical method;  by  equalizing  and  improving  knowledge 
(opportunity,  equipment)  ;  for  self-conscious  society 
may  increase  its  own  intelligence  which  is  partly  an 
"acquired  characteristic";   St.   Simon's  "Parable." 

5.  Xote:   This  theory  does  not  deny  the  utility  of  the  physi- 

ological method  which  is  but  an  application  of  the 
sociological  method. 

V.  The  Data  of  the  Theory  of  Potential  Genius. 

1.  Argument  from  the  rise  of  the  once  politically  submerged 

nine-tenths :    slave — serf — proletariat — demos. 

2.  The  statistical  argument. 

a.  It  strongly  sustains  the  view  that  the  submerged,  by 
entering  into  possession  of  an  equal  share  in  the 
spiritual  heritage  of  the  past,  will  be  able  to  con- 
tribute their  even  share  to  social  achievement. 

&.  Results  of  Odin's  remarkable  statistical  investigation 
of  6382  celebrated  French  men  of  letters  of  "merit," 
1300-1830  (144  men  of  genius;  1136  of  talent). 

1)  Economic  environment:    of  619   men  of  talent   562 

were  rich ;  57  were  poor ;  hence,  considering  the 
relative  numbers,  the  rich  child  has  50  times  as 
many  chances  for  fame  as  the  poor  child. 

2)  Social  environment:    for  623  men  of  talent  the  rela- 

tive chances  for  fame  were  200  for  the  noble:  23 
for  the  bourgeois;  1  for  the  laborer. 


OPPOSITION    OB    COUNTER-IMITATION.  <">1 

3)  Educational    environment:     of   827    men    of   talent 

(1300-1825)  811  had  good  and  L6  poor  education; 
hut  of  the  L6  only  three  had  a  bad  ciiviroinnt'iii. 
Eence  only  L-10  of  1  per  cent  were  without  special 
opportunity. 

4)  Local   environment:    influence  of  the  cities;   of  the 

chateaux.    Light  on  the  question  of  relative  ability 
of  the  sexes, 
c.  General   result:   the   equalization   of  opportunity   may 
raise  the  world's  fecundity   in  men  and   women  of 
talent  from  the  present   ratio  of  1  in  DO, 000  to  1  at 
least  in  250  of  the  population;   besides   increasing 
the   efficiency    of   all    minds    in    the    lower    psychic 
groups. 
(L  Results  of  the  investigations  of  Cooley  and   Robertson 
(see   the   articles   below    cited). 
VI.  Therefore  the  Future  Mission  of  Democracy  is  the  Spiritual 
(Psychic)  Liberation  of  All  Men. 

1.  It  is  its  function  to  set  free  the  latent  ability,  the  psychic 

force,  of  the  partially  submerged  four-fifths  of  human 
kind;  to  abolish  spiritual  privilege. 

2.  To  socialize  or  equalize  education,  that   is.  opportunity; 

to  liberate  the  entire  mental  and  moral  capital  of  soci- 
ety. 

3.  It  is  its  privilege  to  glorify  ideals  of  social  reform  and 

regeneration;  for  all  class-distinctions  arc  wholly  arti- 
ficial; and  bad  environment,  perverted  institutions. 
unequal  enjoyment  of  nature's  goods,  clog,  choke,  re- 
press four-fifths  of  the  talents  of  men. 

On  the  other  hand  leisure,  short  hours  of  toil,  means  oppor- 
tunity for  creative  thought;  for  under  past  and  present  condi- 
tions the  mental  powers  of  the  toiling  masses  are  always  "run 
down":  like  the  underfed  orphan  at  "Do-the-Boys  Hall"  or  the 
underfed  mother  who  sang  the  ''Song  of  the  Shirt";  Cray's  in- 
sight : 

"But  knowledge  to  their  eyes  tier  ample  page, 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did   ne'er  unroll; 
Chill  penury  repressed  their  m >i >1  < •  rage, 
And  froze  the  genial  current  <>f  the  soul. 

"Some  village  Hampden,  that  with  dauntless  breast 

The   little    tyrant   of   his    fields    withstood, 
Some   mute    inglorious    Milton    here   may    rest. 

Some  Cromwell  guiltless  <>f  ids  country's  blood." 


62  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

SELECT  EEFEREXCES. 

I.  Iir<  pressiJile  Genius. — (Hilton.  "Hereditary  Talent  and  Character," 
in  Macmillan's  Magazine  (1865),  XII,  157-66, '.318-27;  idem,  Hereditary 
Genius  (1869,  1892);  idem,  English  Men  of  Science  (1874);  idem,  many 
articles  in  magazines.  Compare  Ribot,  L'Heredite  psychologique  (1873, 
1882,  1887;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1875);  James,  "Great  Men,  Great 
Thoughts,  and  the  Environment,"  in  Atlantic,  XLVI  (1880),  and  in 
Essays  (1897);  Joly,  Psychologie  des  grands  hom-mes  (1883,  1891); 
Lombroso,  UUomo  tli  geuio  (1888;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1*91);  idem, 
Gehio  e  follia  (1882)  ;  idem,  11  delitto  politico  (1890)  ;  lleibmayr,  Die 
Entwicklungsgeschichte  des  Talentes  mid  Genics  (2  vols.,  1908)  ;  re- 
viewed by  Havelock  Ellis,  in  Sociological  Review,  II,  191-93. 

Galton  founded  the  new  science  of  "Eugenics,"  having  for  its  purpose 
the  better  breeding  of  men  and  women  through  wiser  selection.  See 
his  Natural  Inheritance  (1899)  ;  idem,  "Possible  Improvement  of  the 
Human  Breed,"  in  Smithsonian  Institution,  Report  (1901),  523-38;  idem, 
"Eugenics,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  1-25,  XI,  11-25;  idem,  Probability  the  Founda- 
tion of  Eugenics   (Oxford,  1907)  ;  idem,  Eugenics  (London). 

The  literature  of  Eugenics  is  rapidly  growing.  For  example,  consult 
Thomas,  "Eugenics  :  The  Science  of  Breeding  Men,"  in  American  Maga- 
zine, LXVIII  (1909),  190-97;  Keller,  "Eugenics:  The  Science  of  Rearing 
Human  Thoroughbreds,"  in  Yale  Review,  XVII,  127  ff. ;  Pearson,  "The 
Scope  and  Importance  to  the  State  of  the  Science  of  National  Eugenics," 
in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  LXXI,  3S5-42;  the  books  of  Saleeby,  Tenney, 
Thorndike,  GaUon  and  Schuster,  and  the  articles  of  Hunt,  Taylor, 
Trotter,  and  Saleeby  mentioned  in  the  "Select  Bibliography." 

II.  Potential  Genius. — Helvetius,  De  Vhomme,  etc.  (2  vols.,  London, 
1773)  ;  Odin,  Genese  des  grands  hommes  (2  vols.,  1895)  ;  Ward,  Applied 
Sociology  (1906),  publishing  Odin's  tables  with  modifications;  idem, 
Dynamic  Sociology  (2  vols.,  1883,  1897)  ;  idem,  Psychic  Factors  (1893)  ; 
idem.  Pure  Sociology  (1903),  Index  at  "Genius";  idem,  "Broadening  the 
Way  to  Success,"  in  Forum  (1886),  II,  340-50;  Candolle,  Histoire  des 
sciences  et  des  savants  (2d  ed.,  1885)  ;  Cooley,  "Genius,  Fame,  and  the 
Comparison  of  Races,"  in  Annals  (1897),  IX,  317-58;  idem,  Social  Organ- 
ization, 214,  317,  348,  378;  idem,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order. 
Index  at  "Genius"  and  "Leadership";  Robertson,  "The  Economics  of 
Genius,"  in  Forum  (1898),  XXV,  178-90;  Fiske,  "Sociology  and  Hero- 
Worship,"  in  Atlantic,  XLVII,  75-84  (replying  to  James)  ;  Allen,  "Genesis 
of  Genius,"  in  Atlantic  (1881),  XLVII,  371-81  (replying  to  James); 
Jacoby,  Etudes  sur  la  selections  (1881,  1904).  On  mental  egalitarian- 
ism,  see  Ward,  Applied,  Sociology,  95  ff. ;  Thomas,  "The  Mind  of  Woman 
and  the  Lower  Races,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  XII  (1907),  435-69;  idem,  "The  Ad- 
ventitious Character  of  Woman,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  XII,  32-44,  both  articles 
reprinted  in  his  Se.r  and  Society  (1907)  ;  Gulick,  Evolution  of  the  Jap- 
anese ;  and  the  literature  cited  in   Section  XIX,   above. 

Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  163-93,  in  part  agreeing 
with  James  as  above  cited,  regards  genius  as  a  "variation,"  produced 
however  not  without  "social"  influence.  With  this  view  compare  Ross, 
Foundations.  Index  at  "Genius";  idem,  Social  Control,  83,  356-59;  idem. 
Social  Psychology,  41,  175,  360.  Contrast  the  view  of  Bourdeau,  Uhistoire 
et  lex  hisloricnx  (1888),  who,  rejecting  the  great  man  or  hero  theory, 
ascribes  social  achievement  to  the  nameless  many;  with  that  of  Lacombe. 
L'histoire  consiilcrce  coninie  science  C1894),  who  exalts  the  function  of 
the  individual.  In  this  connection  should  be  studied  the  psychological 
analysis    of    greatness    by    Davis.    Psychological    Interpretations,    239-53. 


OPPOSITION    OB    COUNTER-IMITATION.  <».". 

Compare  Mallock,  Aristocracy  and  Evolution  (1898)  :  Idem,  Social  Equal- 
ity (1882);  Mach,  "On  the  Part  Played  by  Accident  in  [nvention  and 
Discovery,"  in  Vonist,  VI  (1896),  161-7.".;  Flamingo,  "Individual  Deter- 
minism and  Social  Science,"  in  Annate,  VD  (1x96),  270-s:, :  Bagehot, 
Physics  and  Politics,  90  ff.    (on  leadership). 


SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A  satisfactory  bibliography  of  social  psychology  has  not  yet 
appeared.  The  list  of  works  on  "Individual  and  Social  Psy- 
chology" compiled  by  Benjamin  Band  in  James  M.  Baldwin's 
Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  III,  Part  II,  974-87, 
is  useful;  and  even  more  helpful  is  The  Psychological  Index;  A 
Bibliography  of  Psychology  and  Cognate  Subjects,  now  15  num- 
bers, appended  to  the  respective  volumes  of  the  Psychological 
Review.  Valuable  "lists  of  authors"  are  contained  in  Lester  F. 
Ward's  Psychic  Factors  and  his  Applied  Sociology.  Particularly 
serviceable  are  the  footnotes  and  the  "Bibliography  of  the 
Sociological  Writings  of  Gabriel  Tarde"  presented  in  Michael 
M.  Davis's  Gabriel  Tarde  and  his  Psychological  Interpretations. 
In  the  following  list  are  included  only  such  works  on  general 
sociology  as  are  of  distinct  service  for  the  study  of  social  psy- 
chology. On  the  other  hand,  the  list  contains  the  more  impor- 
tant miscellaneous  books  drawn  upon  for  examples  and  illustra- 
tions. It  may  be  supplemented  by  the  "Select  Bibliography" 
published  in  the  writer's  General  Sociology:  An  Analytical 
Reference  Syllabus,  published  by  the  University  of  Nebraska  in 
1907. 

I.  Texts  and  Outlines. 

1.  Books  Recommended  for  Continuous  Reading  to  Supplement 
the  Lecture  Course  on  the  "Syllabus." 

Cooley,   Charles  Horton.     Social   Organization.     A  Study   of   thr   Larger 

Mind.  New  York,  1909. 
Ross,    Edward   Alsworth.      Social   Psychology.      An    Outline    and    Source 

Book.  New  York,  1908. 
Ward,  Frank  Lester.     Applied  Sociology.     A   Treatise  on  the  Conscious 

Improvement  of  Society.     Boston,  1906. 

2.    Other  Works  Recommended  for  Class  Use. 

Baldwin,  James  Mark.     Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Mental  De- 
velopment.    3d  ed.     New  York  and  London,  1902 ;  4th  ed.,  1906. 

Davis,  Michael  M.    Psychological  Interpretations  of  Society.    New  York, 
1909. 

(64) 


BBLBCT   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  05 

McD.HiL'aii.  William.     i«  Introduction  to  social  Psychology.    Boston,  L909. 

Edward  Alsworth.     Sooial   Control.     New   York,   1901. 

sidis,  Boris.  The  Psychology  of  Suggestion.  I  Research  into  the  Bub- 
conscious  Nature  of  Man  and  Society.  With  an  Introduction  by 
Professor   William   -lames.     New  York,   1906. 


II.     Serial  Publications. 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science.  Annals,  1890-1909. 
34  vols.     Philadelphia,   1890-1909. 

American  .Journal  Of  Psychology.  Edited  by  G.  Stanley  Ball.  20  vols. 
Worcester,    1887-1909. 

American  Journal  of  Sociology.  15  vols.  Chicago  and  New  York,  1895- 
1909. 

American  Sociological  Society.  Publications,  I-III.  Chicago  and  New 
York,  1907-1909. 

Annee  Sociologique.  Published  under  the  direction  of  fimile  Durkheim. 
10   vols.     Paris,    1898-1907. 

Bureau  of  Labor,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Bulletins,  Num- 
bers 1-81   (to  March,  1909).     Washington,  1909. 

Eugenics  Review.  Published  by  the  Eugenics  Education  Society.  London. 
1909. 

International   Journal    of  Ethics.      19   vols.      Philadelphia,    1891-1909. 

Journal  of  Philosophy,  Psychology,  and  Scientific  Methods,  c,  vols.  New 
York,    1904-1909. 

Journal  of  Mental  Si  'unci  .     55  vols.     London,  1855-1909. 

Mind.  A  Quarterly  Journal  of  Psychology  and  Philosophy.  New  Scries. 
18  vols.     London,   1876-1909. 

Philosophical  Review.  Edited  by  J.  G.  Schurman,  J.  E.  Creighton.  ami 
James  Seth.     18  vols.     New  YTork,   1892-1909. 

Psychological  Review.  Edited  by  John  Mark  Baldwin,  Howard  ('.  War- 
ren, and  Charles  H.  Judd.  16  vols.  Lancaster  and  Baltimore.  1894- 
1909. 

Psychological  Bulletin.  Edited  by  John  Mark  Baldwin,  Howard  C.  War- 
ren, and  Charles  H.  Judd.  6  vols.  Lancaster  and  Baltimore,  1904- 
1909. 

Revue  International  de  Sociologie,  1893-1909.  Edited  by  Rene  Worms. 
17   vols.     Paris,   1893-1909. 

Revue  de  Philosophic.    E.  Peillaube,  Director.     9  vols.     Paris,  1901-1909. 

Revue  Philosophique  de  la  France  et  de  V£t  ranger.  Edited  by  Th.  Ribot. 
66   vols.     Paris,   1876-1909. 


(JC.  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

Revue  dr   Psychologic  Sociale.     Paris,   1907 — . 

Sociological  Society,  London.     Sociological  Papers.     3  vols.     London  and 
New  York,   1905-1907. 

Sociological  Society,  London.     The  Sociological  Review.     Vols.  I-II.     Lon- 
don, 1908-1909. 

Zeitschrift  fur  Vblker-Psychologie  mid  Sprach-Wissenschaft.     Edited  by 
Moritz  Lazarus   and   H.   Steinhal.     20  vols.     Berlin,   1859-90. 


III.    Works  on  Sociology. 

1.  Books. 

Adams,  Brooks.     The  Law  of  Civilization  and.  Decay.     London  and   New 
York,   1895. 

Addams,  Jane.     Democracy  and  Social  Ethics.     New  York  and  London, 
1902. 

Mercer  Ideals  of  Peace.    New  York  and  London,  1907. 

Alsberg,  M.     Erbliche  Entartung  oedingt  durch  soziale  Einfliisse.     Cassel 

and  Leipzig,  1903. 
America's  Race  Problems.     New  York,  1901. 
Ames,  Hugo.     The  Position  of  Woman  and  the  Problems  of  Sex.    London, 

1909. 
Amnion,  Otto.     Natiirlich  Auslese  beim  Menschen.     Jena,  1893. 
Aubry.     La  contagion  du  meurtre.     1887,  1894. 
Avenarius,  Bichard.     Der  menschliche  Weltbegriff. 
Babington,   W.   D.     Fallacies  of  Race   Theories   as   Applied   to   National 

Characteristics.     London,  1895. 
Bagehot,  Walter.     Physics  and  Politics,  New  York,  1871,  1902. 
Baldwin,  James  Mark.     Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race. 

New  York,   1895. 

Fragments  in  Philosophy  and  Science.     New  York,  1902. 

Handbook  of  Psychology.     2  vols.     New  York,  1889,  1891. 

Balfour,  A.  J.     Defense  of  Philosophic  Doubt.    London,  1879. 

The  Foundations  of  Belief.     New  York,  1895. 

Barth,  Paul.    Die  Philosophie  der  Geschichte  als  Sociologie.     Erster  Teil. 

Leipzig,   1S97. 
Barton,  G.  A.     A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins.     New  York.  1902. 
Batten,  Samuel  Z.     The  Christian  State.     Boston  and  New  York,  1909. 
Bauer.  Arthur.    Essai  sur  les  revolutions.    Paris,  1908. 

Les  classes  socialcs.     Paris,  1902. 


SELECT    BIBLIOGRAPHY.  i'h 

Bechterew,  \v.  Die  Be&eutwng  d<  r  Suggestion  im  soci&len  Leben,  Wi<-  - 
baden,    1905. 

r.ciiiin'iiii.  ii.    Suggestive  Therapeuttos.    New  fork,  it 

Etudes  nouvelles  sur  I'hypnotisme.     Paris,   1891. 

Bianchi,  R.     L'etica  e  la  psicologia  sociale.    Turin.  L901. 
Binet,  Alfred.     La  avggesHMUte'. 

P.inet,   Allied.   ;iik1    Fer6,  Charles.     Animal   Magnetism.     New    York,    1890. 
Bordier,   A.     La    vie  des  societcs.      Paris.    1887. 

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8G  SOCIAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 

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88 


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